FYBA Communication Skills Semester I-munotes

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Unit -1
BASIC LANGUAGE SKILLS -PART -ONE
(Articles, Preposition, Conjunction, Transformation of
Sentences (Simple Compound, Compound,) and Tenses
Unit Structure
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Articles
1.4 Preposition
1.5 Conjunction
1.6 Transformation of Sentences (Simple, Compound and
Complex)
1.7 Tenses
1.8 Let us sum up
1.9 Keywords
1.10 Assignment
1.1 OBJECTIVES
The purpose of this unit is to introduce you in some detail to
‘Basic Communication Skills’. We will first discuss ‘What do we
mean by articles, preposition, conjunction, Transformation of
sentences and Tenses.’. We will study few examples of each. It will
help us to understand which word in sentence is an article,
preposition, orconjunction ;how to transform sentences and w hat is
tense. We will study different types of articles, preposition,
conjunction, and tenses.’ We will also study function of an article,
preposition, conjunction, and the use of t ransformation of
sentences and Tenses.
After you have completed this unit ,y o us h o u l db ea b l et o
use appropriate articles, preposition s, conjunction s,a n d conduct
transformation of sentences as well as use different types of tenses
as per the need in your communication and dialogue.
1.2 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we will study the concept of basic language
skills. In order t o communicate in style and create desired impact,munotes.in

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having the knowledge of basic language skills is must. Thus, we will
try to understand concepts of Articles, Preposition, Conjunction,
Transformation of Sentence and Tenses. We are studying these
concepts from early stage of our learning. Thus, we will be able to
understand this unit easily. Considering various elements of this
unit, we will divide this unit in five different subunits to make our
understa nding easy.
Let’s begin thestudy of this unit.
1.3 ARTICLES
In this sub-unit, we will study the concept of ‘article.’
Basically, an article is an adjective. Like an adjective, article
modifies noun. In English language there are two types of articl es:
'a'or'an'and 'the'.T h e yare used to specify whether a noun refers
to a specific or a general person, thing or place. Article ‘the’ is used
to refer to the specific or particular nouns whereas article ‘a or an’ is
used to modify or specify non -spec ific or non -particular nouns.
Based on this we can classify ‘Articles’ in two types:
1. Definite articles (the) and
2. Indefinite article(a or an)
Uses of Articles :
Now we will study uses of articles. Alice Maclin in Reference
Guide to English: A Handbook o fE n g l i s ha saS e c o n d
Language1presents the uses of articles as follows:
The Indefinite Article:
Ao rA n :
'A'or'n'comes before a singular countable noun. 'A'comes
before a consonant sound, but an comes before a vowel sound.
Choose according to pronun ciation, not spelling.
A ball, an apple, a university, a hospital, an eagle, an
honest man, A hospital, a car, an office a year
Use a(n):
1.Before an unidentified singular countable noun that is one
example of its class, but the number one is not b eing
emphasized.
A black dog is standing in the road. (The emphasis is not on the
number.)
One black dog is standing in the road. (The emphasis is on the
number one.)munotes.in

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2.Before an unidentified singular countable noun that is
representative of its class, as in a definition.
A dog is a domestic animal.
3.Before a predicate noun after to be if no other determiner is
used.
Mrs. Seckson is a good friend.
Man O’War was famous racehorse.
4.With uncountable nouns to mean a kind of, or with kind of, or
certain.
This man has an honesty that we all appreciate.
Ag r e a t e ru n i t yi sn e e d e d .
Literature of other countries gives us an insight into other cultures.
5.Before few and little to mean some but not many. Plural forms
for a(n) are the zero article and some.
The:
The can be used with all nouns. Use the to identify a noun
that shows
1.Reference backward to a noun already mentioned.
A dog has been barking all day and here is the dog now,
standing outside the gate.
2.Reference forward to an identification soon to be made, often by
modifiers following the noun.
The man at the door wants to speak to you.
The dog that has been barking all day has finally stopped barking.
Every student should know something about the history of his own
country.
Use thebefore superlativ es and before ordinal numbers. Put
additional phrase modifiers after the noun.
This is thebest cake I have ever eaten.
China has thelargest population of all countries in theworld.
Mt. Everest is thehighest mountain in theworld.
Charles Lindbergh was thefirst person to fly theAtlantic
alone.
Note: Ordinal numbers used alone may have the zero article .
She was first in her class.
Our team is third in standings.munotes.in

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3.Context known to writer and reader.
Here comes the teacher. (One teacher known to th e class.)
Turn on the light in the kitchen. (Only one light in one kitchen.)
Have you been to the mountains recently. (mountains nearby that
are known to everyone.)
They prefer to live in the city. (The reader, it is assumed,
understands the difference be tween living in the country or suburbs
and living in the city.)
4.Identification of a class, especially in a generalization.
Followed by a noun, often singular:
The child is the hope of the future.
The nuclear threat is frightening.
Followed by an adjec tive.
The elderly are often lonely.
The handicapped need access to public buildings.
5.The beginning of a phrase containing an appositive.
This is my friend, the one I was telling you about.
Do this experiment first, the experiment on page 29.
The Zero Ar ticle
Use the zero article. (absence of an article.)
1.To refer to all members of a class.
Dogs are domestic animals. (all dogs.)
Mary likes dogs. (all dogs)
Men proposes; God disposes. (man in the sense of all human
beings.)
2.To distinguish one class from another.
Dogs, not squirrels, are domestic animals.
Mary likes dogs, not cats.
Men, not women, are boxers.
3.To refer to an idefinite number but not necessarily to all
members of a class
Leaves are beginning to fall. (many)
Engineers make good salaries. (m any)
The edge of the field was marked by trees.
4.With plural nouns after be.
Most of my friends are students.
His sisters are teachers.munotes.in

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5.With institutions and practices felt to be unique.
School begins Monday. ( a particular Monday.)
Breakfast will be l ate tomorrow. (there will be only one
breakfast tomorrow.)
People are angry with Assembly. (there is only one
Assembly in the country.)
But
People are angry with state legislature. (one of many.)
People are angry with the city council. (One of ma ny.)
6.With set phrases, usually pairs, such as
Man and wife, father and son,
brother and sister, lock and key,
Sun, moon, and stars, heaven and hell, wind and rain
Snow and sleet go(come) home,
7. With set prepositional phrases, such as
At war in danger on guard
At peace in need on purpose
At ease in tears on fire
At rest in reply on sale
At sea in love on vacation
At lunch in difficulty on time, on duty, on land (and sea)
By accident out of control
By design out of danger
By heart out of date
By surprise out of doors
By chance out of order
By mistake out of stock
By bus, plane, car out of turn
You can find set phrases in dictionaries. Look the object
word up if you are not sure of its use: war, peace, danger and so
on. Dict ionaries written for nonnative speakers give more
information about set phrases than other dictionaries do.
8.With nouns used in headlines in newspapers, captions in books,
signs, labels , and the like.
PRISONER FREED
ENTERANCE TO PARKING
BEWARE OF DOG
Some
Use some for an indefinite amount with uncountable nouns.
He wants some rice.munotes.in

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She is taking some instruction in music now.
Mrs. Johnson gave us some good advice.
You can find some information about television shows in
today’s newspaper.
Any
Use any in place of some in questions and negatives.
He doesn’t want any rice.
She isn’t taking any instruction in music now.
Mrs. Johnson didn’t give us any good advice.
You cannot find any information about television shows in
today’s newspapers.
Note :Any may be used in the sense of “it doesn’t matter which.”
Any of the suits on this rack will fit you.
He has enough money to buy anycar he wants.
Any doctor can tell you what long hours he works.
Articles with proper nouns
Do not use an article with
1.Common nouns used as terms of address and therefore
capitalized.
Thank you, Mother.
The patient is ready, Doctor.
2.Other proper nouns, except as noted below.
Use a(n)
1.When using a proper noun to indicate the characteristics of the
person named.
Heis a Hercules. (very strong.)
She is a Florence Nightingale. (a kind of nurse.)
2.To mean “a certain person whose name is”
A Dr. Jones called this morning.
A Mr. Johnson is looking for you.
Use the
1. For a family name in the plural.
The Hendersons have moved .
The Smiths came this evening.
Note : Do not use an apostrophe in plural family names that are not
possessive.
2.To distinguish two people who have the same name.
The George Brown who teaches here is not the George Brown you
knew in college.
3.When the artic le is accepted as part of a geographical name.munotes.in

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COUNTRIES: the Netherlands the United States of the U. S.
the Philippines the Soviet Union or the U.S.S.R.
SEAS AND OCEANS:
the Black Sea the Pacific (Ocean)
the Red Sea the Atlantic (Ocean)
the Indian Ocean the Baltic (Sea)
the North Sea the Mediterranean (Sea)
Ocean or Sea is always part of the name in the list on the
left, but you may leave it out in the list on the right. Do not use the
with names of individual lakes, but the Great Lakes means
collectively Lake Superior, Lake Huron, Lake Michigan, Lake Erie,
and Lake Ontario.
RIVERS: the Amazon the Mississippi
the Ganges the Nile
MOUNTAIN RANGES:
the Alps the Andes
the Rockies or the Rocky Mountains,
the Himalayas or the Him alaya Mountains
Most individual peaks do not have the in their name, but the
Matterhorn does.
4. When the article is accepted as part of any kind of proper
name
SHIPS:
the Arizona the GrofSpee
the Queen Elizabeth II the Norway
NEWSPAPERS:
The Times The Times of India
The New York Times butTime (magazine)
Note: Names of ships and newspapers are printed in italics. Show
this in writing or typing by underlining.
HOTELS: The Hilton The Sheraton
The Cloisters The Marriot
COLLEGES AN DUNIVERSITIES:
The University of Michigan, the University of Southern
California
When identifying name of a college or university is first, do not
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Harvard University Indiana University Concordia College
OTHER ORGANIZATIONS AND INSTITUTIONS :
the United Nations the Museum of Natural
the National Gallery History
the Rose Bowl
but
central park Carnegie Hall, Soldier’s Field
Memorial stadium
Exercise
Try this exercise, putting a/an/the in the blanks.
If there should be no article, the n place a * in the blank. The
answers and explanations follow. Mr.Coleman was (1) ___ very
fastidious person. He lived three (2) ___ streets away from us, in
(3) ___ small house with (4) ___ beautiful garden. Having taken
early retirement from his (5) ___ job as (6) ___ button counter, he
now had plenty of time to worry, and this he did very successfully.
He often spent sleepless nights trying to figure out how he could
successfully cook both sides of (7) ___ omelet without it breaking,
or how he might ach ieve better access to (8) ___ tins at (9) ___
back of his cupboard. (10) ___ most of his home was exceptionally
neat and tidy, but several loose cables behind (11) ___ television
set bothered him, and he never quite knew what to do with (12) ___
empty plas tic bags.
Then, one day, his life changed, and he began to experience some
relief from his anguish. It seemed that other people underwent
similar mental trials, for (13) ___ new catalogue appeared on his
doorstep. (14) ___ catalogue contained solutions f or many of his
problems, and for others which had not yet given him any cause for
concern. There was (15) ___ set of three egg timers, for example,
shaped like (16) ___ chickens and designed to emit (17) ___
clucking sound at (18) ___ end of three, four an df i v em i n u t e s
respectively. In this way he could cook (19) ___ eggs to suit each of
his friends individually, and then keep them warm with (20) ___
specially designed covers which went with the timer, marked ‘3’, ‘4’
and ‘5’ for identification purposes. A nd (21) ___ catalogue
contained many other wonderful ideas, such as (22) ___ toaster
which could be adjusted to produce different degrees of brownness
on (23) ___ four slices toasted simultaneously, and (24) ___ photo
frame that rotated pictures at (25) __ _ touch of (26) ___ invisible
button, so that visiting relatives would never be offended by not
seeing their pictures on display, unless, of course, they all turned
up together –Mr Coleman eventually solved this problem too by
ordering four frames.munotes.in

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Answers:
Mr.Coleman was (1) a very fastidious person. He lived three (2) *
streets away from us, in (3) a small house with (4) a beautiful
garden. Having taken early retirement from his (5) * job as (6) a
button counter, he now had plenty of time to worry, and this he did
very successfully. He often 4 spent sleepless nights trying to figure
out how he could successfully cook both sides of (7) an omelet
without it breaking, or how he might achieve better access to (8) the
tins at (9) the back of his cupboard. (10) * Most of his home was
exceptionally neat and tidy, but several loose cables behind (11)
the television set bothered him, and he never quite knew what to do
with (12) * empty plastic bags.
Then, one day, his life changed, and he began to experience some
relief from his anguish. It seemed that other people underwent
similar mental trials, for (13) a new catalogue appeared on his
doorstep. (14) The catalogue contained solutions for many of his
problems, and for others which had not yet given him any c ause for
concern. There was (15) a set of three egg timers, for example,
shaped like (16) * chickens and designed to emit (17) a clucking
sound at (18) the end of three, four and five minutes respectively. In
this way he could cook (19) * eggs to suit each of his friends
individually, and then keep them warm with (20) the specially
designed covers which went with the timer, marked ‘3’, ‘4’ and ‘5’
for identification purposes. And (21) the catalogue contained many
other wonderful ideas, such as (22) a toaste r which could be
adjusted to produce different degrees of brownness on (23) * four
slices toasted simultaneously, and (24) a photo frame that rotated
pictures at (25) the touch of (26) an invisible button, so that visiting
relatives would never be offended by not seeing their pictures on
display, unless, of course, they all turned up together –Mr Coleman
eventually solved this problem too by ordering four frames.
(Adapted from Haisley, J 2008, The Good Samaritan, Ginninderra
Press, Adelaide)
Explanatio ns(Source:
https://www.adelaide.edu.au/writingcentre/docs/learningguide -
articlesinenglishgrammar.pdf )
(1) a singular, countable noun; first mention
(2)no article plural, countable noun; a number is used instead
(‘three streets’)
(3) a singular, countable noun; first mention
(4) a singular, countable noun; first mention
(5) a singular, countable noun; first mention; someone’s job
(6) a singular, count able noun; first mentionmunotes.in

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(7) an singular, countable noun; first mention
(8) the plural, countable noun; we know which tins (the tins at the
back of his cupboard), so the noun is specific
(9) the singular, countable noun; specific noun followed by ‘of’
(10) no article singular, countable noun; ‘most of his home’
(11) the singular, countable noun; the writer is drawing you into the
story, assuming that you know which television set is talked
about, and that Mr Coleman only has one television set
(12) no art icle plural, countable noun; not specific
(13) a singular, countable noun; first mention
(14) the singular, countable noun; second mention. You know
which catalogue, so it is now specific
(15) a singular, countable noun; first mention
(16) no article pl ural, countable noun; not specific
(17) a singular, countable noun; first mention
(18) the singular, countable noun; specific noun followed by ‘of’
(19) no article plural, countable noun; not specific
(20) the singular, countable noun; we know which cov ers (the
covers which went with the timer), so the noun is specific
(21) the singular, countable noun; second mention. You know
which catalogue, so it is now specific 5
(22) a singular, countable noun; first mention
(23) no article plural, countable noun; a number is used
(24) a singular, countable noun; first mention
(25) the singular, countable noun; specific noun followed by ‘of’
(26) an singular, countable noun before a word beginning with a
vowel sound; first mention
(1. Maclin, Alice. Reference Guid e to English: A Handbook of
English as a Second Language, Materials Branch, English
Language Programs Division, United States information Agency,
Washington, D.C. 1994)
1.4 PREPOSITION
We all know that ‘preposition’ is a part of speech. Basically,
‘preposition ’i saw o r dt h a t‘ shows relationship. ’T h i sr e l a t i o n s h i p
may be in ‘time and space,’ indifferent ‘ideas or entities’ ,a n d
the relationship of a ‘person or thing’ for which it stands.munotes.in

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Example:
1. They are playing inthe garden.
2. She puts the book onthe table.
3. He went with her.
In first sentence, the word ‘in’is preposition, in second sentence,
the word ‘on’ is preposition, whereas in third sentence the word
‘with’ is preposition.
1. They are playing inthe garden.
2. She puts the book onthe table.
3. He w entwith her.
In first sentence, preposition ‘in’ shows the relationship
between playing and garden. In second sentence, preposition ‘on’
shows the relationship between book and table and in third
sentence, preposition ‘with’ shows relationship between we nt and
her.
We should note that ‘Prepositions are used to form a
sensible meaning .’ In this context, prepositions are ‘set of
organised words.’ As these are organised words, these are known
as ‘prepositional phrase .’ A prepositional Phrase consists of
preposition, its object and modifier. These set(s) can be used as
‘collocations/company, juxtapositions, associations, appositions,
comparisons and even as connections. . Such words have their
specific meaning (examples: within, inside). In word set,
prepos itions may be used either in the beg inning ,m i d d l eo ra tt h e
end of the word set. See the following examples.
inturn, for this, in case, with her,
one by one , look at, come for
Prepositions have one or more than one usage. Many prepositions
can be u sed as adverbs.
Examples of preposition:
At, by, down, for, from, in near, of off, on out, up,
to, above, before, behind, beneath, between, beyond,
over, toward(s), under, underneath, in back of, in front of,
on the other side of, on top of, aboard, o nb o a r d ,b e t w e e n / b e t w i x t ,
as, except, like, minus, plus, than worth, barring, following,
including, pending, concerning, regarding, alongside, away from,
as(far)as, in front of , in back of, inside, inside of, in the middle of ,
into, near, next to, off , on, opposite, out, out of, outside, over, past,
round, through, throughout,, to, towards, under, underneath, up
Simple prepositions, Complex prepositions and prepositional
phrases:
Above list of preposition is introductory. We can find more
prepositi ons. It helps s us to show that propositions are arranged inmunotes.in

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many ways. Following is a manner in which we can arrange
prepositions.
a)Simple preposition(s):
Examples:
on, of, at, by, for, out, from, above,
across, against, along, , among, around,
before, b ehind, below, beneath, beside,
between, beyond, by, down, far, from
b)Compound preposition(s):
Examples:
inside, outside, beside,
beyond, underneath,
within, without
c)Prepositional phrase(s)
Examples:
According to,
in place of
Prepositions of space an d movement:
Following prepositions can be used for space and movement,
depending on the meaning of the rest of the sentence.
Example :
On, off, by, across,
above, alongside, down,
far, out, out of, outside,
beyond, between, near,
under, towards.
Prepo sitions of Time:
Following prepositions can be used for time.
Example :a f t e r ,p r i o rt o ,
,u p o n ,o n ,t i l l ,
until, before
After this, we will study the list of prepositions that show
logical relationship.
Prepositions that show logical Relationships
Following prepositions shows logical relationship in a
sentence.
but, of, it, out of,
besides, together with,
as well as, with, beside, besides, as,munotes.in

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Functions of Prepositional Phrases:
Now we will study various functions of prepositional phrase.
Basicall y, prepositional phrases have following functions.
Post modifier in noun phrase :
Example:
The students in the class were dancing.
In this sentence, ‘in the class’ is the post modifier of the noun
students in the sentence. .
Adverbial :
Example:
The students were dancing in the class .
In the evening ,t h e yw e n tt op l a y .
From his perspective , this is the perfect way to reach there.
In all fairness, she tried to convince her teacher.
We should note that ‘ in the class’ in the first sentenc e, ‘In the
evening ’in the second sentence, ‘ From his perspective ,’in the
third sentence and ‘In all fairness, ’in the last sentence are the
prepositional phrases. These are used as adverbials in these
sentences.
Complementation :( o fav e r b /o fa n adjective)
Example:
They were looking at their own contribution .
He is sorry for his condition .
Friends, at their own contribution ,a n d for his condition are the
prepositional phrases in these sentences. These are used as
complements.
Subject of a se ntence :
Example:
In April ,l e t sp l a nat o u r .
Now, we know that in this sentence, ‘ In April’ is prepositional
phrase and used as the subject of this sentence.
In this unit, we have studied the concept of ‘preposition.’
‘Preposition ’i saw o r dt h a t ‘shows relationship. ’ This relationship
may be in ‘time and space,’ indifferent ‘ideas or entities’ ,a n d
the relationship of a ‘person or thing’ for which it stands. There
are many types of prepositions. Prepositional phrases have many
functions.munotes.in

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Exerci se
Fill in the blanks with an appropriate preposition.
1. She lives ______ Pune.
2. He plays ______garden.
3. He is reading_______ five thirty AM.
4. They received their message_____ the morning.
5. Go and play____ him.
Frame sentences by using following prepositions:
At, , from, in near, off,
on out,
up,
to,
above,
before,
behind, beyond,
over, toward(s),
under, underneath,
in back of, in front of,
on the other side of ,
except, like, minus, plus, than worth,
concerning, regarding, alongside, away from, as(far)as,
1.5 CONJUNCTION
The conjunction, a sapart of a sentence , connects, links
words, phrases or clauses to convey the expected meaning. There
are three types of conjunctions.
1.Coordinating conjunction
2.Subordinating conjunction
3.Correlative con junction
Coordinating conjunction:
These types of conjunctions are also known as coordinators
and are used to join two parts of grammatically equal syntactic
importance. Followings are examples of coordinating conjunctions.
For and, not, but, or,yet, so , and not, but not,
or nor, neither, no more, only,
Examples:
Yash and Mrudula are good friends.
He was happy for his services.
She is not th eclassical dancer.
He danced but audience was expecting more.
They will come or you will have to go.
He and she,
Mumbai or Punemunotes.in

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Subordinating conjunction
Subordinating conjunctions or subordinators are used to link
independent and dependent clauses and describe the relationship
between the dependent and independent clause in the sentence.
Examp les:
as, as far as, as if, as long as, as if , as soon as, as
though, after, althoug h,because, before, even if, even though,
every time, if,in order that, provided since, so, so that,
than, though, unless, until, when ,w h e r e , whereas, wherever,
while, whenever while, no matter how, whether until, how, in
that, once, supposing, unless, in case, now that, so that,
Example:
I came as you were too late.
He will be a leader as far as his career is concerned.
He is a leader because he worked hard and offered services
to common people.
.Correlative conjunction:
Correlative conjunctions are used to link words and groups of equal
weight in a sentence. .
Examples:
So… as, not only… but also, as much…as,
either … or, n either….nor, both... and, just as… sono sooner…
than, rather … than
Examples:
You are neither a student nor a teacher.
You either prepare your notes or get ready to face
difficulties.
She is not only a dancer but also singer.
Assignme nt:
Frame sentences with the help of following conjunctions.
For, and, not, but, or, yet, so, and not, but
not, or nor, neither, no more, only, as far as, as
if,as long as, ,a s i f , as soon as, as though, after,
although, beca use, before, even if, even though,
every time, if, in order that, provided since, so, so
that, than, though, unless, until, when, where, whereas,
wherever,
So… as, not on ly… but also, as much…as, either … or,munotes.in

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neither….nor, bo th... and, just as… sono sooner… than,
rather … than
1.6 TRANSFORMATION OF SENTENCES [SIMPLE,
COMPOUND, COMPLEX
The purpose of this part of unit is to introduce you in some
detail ,t o the transformation of sentences. We will first discu ss
about ‘Simple sentences,’ ‘Compound Sentences,’ and ‘Complex
Sentences.’ We will try to discuss it in detail. We will study few
examples of sentences and understand to transformation of one
type of sentence into other type of sentence.
After you ha ve completed this part of unit, you should be
able to identify and write 'simple sentences,’ ‘ compound
Sentences,’ and ‘ complex Sentences.’ and transform sentences
and use appropriate sentences in your personal and professional
communication and dialogue.
A sentence is a linguistic unit. It is a group of meaningful
words that are put in a fixed structure of grammar and punctuation.
It can be used as an independent utterance. It is a clause or a
combination of clauses . It expresses a complete thought. Other
than verb -less sentences such as ‘Good Morning’, a sentence may
have one verb phrase or more verb phrases.
Example:
I am coming.
You are playing cricket.
She is dancing.
They are coming tomorrow with their friends.
She played when her fath er return from America.
Her father discussed with her teacher.
They claimed that their partnership was not legal, moral and
rational.
Good afternoon.
Shut up.
Be sure you begin with a capital letter.
Put your main idea of your sentence in an independent c lause.
Try to mix the kinds of sentences.
Simple Sentence
A sentence has one subject and one predicate is called simple
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Example:
She is coming. (She= Subject, is coming= Predicate)
You are studying. ( You= subject, are studying=predicate)
He is playing. (He= Subject, is playing= predicate)
He is a sincere student. ((He= Subject, a sincere student =
predicate)
Tukaram has opened a bank account. ( Tukaram = Subject, has
opened a bank account = predicate)
There are certain simple sentences where two subjects are used.
They are known as compound subject.
He and she will be playing today. (He and she= Subject)
Manoj and Suresh are coming next week. (Manoj and Suresh =
Subject)
Students and parent were informed in advance. (Students and
parent= subject)
Yash and Anil are good friends. ( Yash and Anil= Subject).
Pundarikji and Mrudulkrisnaji narrate story. (Pundarikji and
Mrudulkrisnaji= Subject)
Compound Subject and Compound Verbs in Simple Sentence
(Tow subjec ts and two verbs):
He and she played and dined together. ( He and she = subject,
played and dinned = verbs)
Ram and Shyam are singing and dancing.
All simple sentences must end with a mark like a period,
exclamation point or question mark.
They went to scho ol.
May I come in?
Compound Sentence
A compound sentence consists of two or more independent
clauses that are joined by coordinating conjunctions, correlative
conjunctions or transitional expressions.
There are seven coordinating conjunctions they are al so
known as coordinators.
and ( add),
but ( contrast)
for (effect -cause)
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Examples:
He came and she went.
They will come and he will cry.
He and she will dance but they will remain at home.
She studied philosophy for she wanted to update her knowledge.
They didn’t read the letter nor did they read report.
I will come or go to Delhi.
He was angry so he went back.
We have invited them yet they didn’t attend the meeting.
Correlative conjunctions also known as pair coordinators
Although… yet
Not only… but also
Either… or
Neither… nor
Example:
Although he scored less marks yet he is an excellent students.
He is not only a good student but also an excellent orator.
She is ne ither reader nor a good writer.
Transitional expressions (Transitional words and transitional
phrases) A word or phrase when functioning as a transitional
expression, shows how meaning of thgat sence is related to the
meaning of the preceding sentence.
(Add)Further, Beside, furthermore, moreover,
(Cause effect)Accordingly, consequently, therefore, thus
(Comparison) However, likewise, otherwise, similarly, still
(Concession) Certainly, nonetheless
(Result) Hence, incidentally
(Contrast) Instead, convers ely
(Emphasis) Indeed
(Explanation) Specifically, Namely
(Time and Sequence) Afterwards, meanwhile, next, now, then,
previously
Transitional phrases
In addition, as a consequence, in comparison, on the other
hand, after all, even so, in contrast, o n the contrary, in fact, for
example, for instance, in other words, that is, in the same way, in
conclusion
Compound verb should not be confused with compound
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Two or more i ndependent clauses in Compound Sentences
He came to her, and they studied for two hours.
Suresh came to party, and he studied English.
Ramesh came to party, yet he studied singing.
Compound sentences having more than two independent
clauses or simple sentences
He sang for two hours, and she played harmonium for three hours,
yet Yash studied for five hours, and Sai practiced for four hours.
Complex Sentences
A complex sentence always has an independent clause
joined by one or more dependent clauses o r subordinate clauses.
You must note that a dependent or subordinate clause begins with
a subordinating conjunction or pronoun. In brief, a complex
sentence has a subordinating conjunction or a relative pronoun. In
a complex sentence, independent and depen dent clauses express
related ideas/thought but these clauses are structurally different.
You should also note that independent and dependent clauses are
not of same importance. The subordinators or pronouns in
subordinate clauses connect these clauses and show their specific
relationship. The subordinators or relative pronouns show which
clause is independent clause and which is dependent clause.
Subordinating conjunctions:
(Reason/ Cause): Because, as, considering that, in order that, so
that, why
(Com parison) As much as, rather than, whereas, whether, rather
than
(Concession/ concern) Although, as even though, while, except
(Condition) that, assuming that, if, even if, in case, unless, until,
whether or not
(Result/ Consequence) that
(Manner) How, as, as if, though,
(Place) Where, wherever, Whence
(Purpose) So that, in order that
(Time) After, before, as soon as, since, still, while
Subordinating conjunction
Wherein, whereby, whereas, wherefore
Examples of Complex Sentences :
Though she was very rich , she was still very unhappy.
Because her milk was too cold, she heated it in the microwave.
The paly, though very long, is still very enjoyable.
Punctuation Rules in subordinating conjunction :
You should note that subordinator could be used at the beginn ing
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second clause if you are beginning a sentence with a subordinator.
If you are using subordinator in the middle, there is no need to use
comma (,) before the second clause. To understand it in simple
language, use comma (,) if sentence starts with independent
clause, and don’t use comma (,) if the sentence begins with a
dependent clause.
Pattern: Subordinate clause + comma+ Independent clause
Example:
After completing his training, he a pplied for the job. Or
He applied for job after completing his training.
He was sorry when he left early.
She said that she was very pleased.
Punctuation Rules
1. Use comma (,) before a coordinating conjunction to connect
independent clauses. (Independen t Clause +comma+ coordinator +
Independent Clause)
Example:
They won the match, but they were not happy with their
performance.
2. You may omit comma before conjunction in formal writing.
Example
They won the match, but they were not happy with their
perfor mance.
3. You may omit comma before conjunction if independent
clauses are short.
Example
They studied but he danced.
4. Skip using coordinating conjunction and use semicolon (;)
instead comma (,) .
Example:
She qualified for finals; she was not satisfied with her performance.
They danced; he sang.
5. Semi colon (;) is used if two ideas are closely associated.
Example
I can defeat him; he cannot defeat me.
6. Independent clauses are never joined only with the help of
comma.
7. Use comma (,) before the second part to co nnect two
independent clauses while connecting independent clauses with
the help of correlative conjunctions.
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Although they won the competition, yet they were not satisfied with
their performance.
8. Use semicolon (;) before a transitional word or phrases to
connect independent clauses and comma is (,) used after
transitional words or phrases
(Independent clause+ Semi colon + transitional word or phrase +
comma+ Independent clause)
They won the competition; however, they were not happy with their
performance.
Assignments
1.Write fifteen examples of simple sentences.
2.Write twenty examples of compound sentences.
3.Write ten examples of complex sentences.
4.Identify whether the sentence is simple, compound or complex
sentences .
She was dancing.
They were singing.
Iw a sp l a y i n g .
He gave her fifteen thousand dollars.
They walked down the street yesterday.
Her friend likes banana.
Dog barks.
The child made her brother unhappy.
The committee e lected Manoj secretary.
Feeling the disappointment of their friends at their late arrival, they
were sorry to leave before watching the movie with guests.
Ram, Shaym and Laxman were good friends.
He ate mangoes and drank water.
He visits Mumbai often.
1.8 TENSES
Tense refers to the time of action or condition. Verbs have
three basic forms viz ‘past, present, and future.’ Verbs have various
forms and dimensions such as main and auxiliary, singular and
plural as well as regular and irregular. The tense o ft h ev e r bh e l pu s
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PRESNT TENSE:
EXAMPLE: -
1. He plays cricket well.
2. Ip l a y .
3. We play in the garden.
4. Sugar is sweet.
5. I walk.
6. You walk.
USAGE: -
1. To show present condition
(Adverbs: Now, at this moment, today, tonight, this minute/
morning/ noon/ evening/ week/ fortnight/ month/ year/ century)
EXAMPLE: -
She is hungry.
He arrives.
Do you know what are you saying?
Yash lives in Vasai now.
Mrudula attends college in New York.
2. To show a natural law or an eternal truth
(Adverbs: Never/always/inevitable/unavoidable/at all times/without
fail, constant)
EXAMPLE: -
Sun rises in the east.
Practice makes man perfect.
Penguins are birds but never fly.
Hungry baby cries.
Man is mortal.
3. To show habitual action
(Adverbs: Consistently, under no circumstances, typically,
occasionally, now and then, not ever, occasionally, often, not often,
each, every)
Example: -
He drinks milk every morning.
They always celebrate their father’s birthday with far mers.
He does not go to temple every Sunday.
We plant tomatoes every year.
Sometimes they go to a soccer games on Thursday night.
4. To show historical present (In research, criticism, etc)
(Adverbs: Value, judgement, possibilities, skilfully, cleverly ,
(in)correctly, clumsily, brilliantly well, poorly, (in) adequately,
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The critic claims that the problem is serious.
5. To define and explain
Two plus two makes four.
A represents B, thus what B says is A says.
6. To show future Possibility
Ramesh will give you his notebook tomorrow, if you want.
Ajay will come next week, if you call him today.
7. To show future events that might happen certainly
The match will start at 9.30pm.
The term getsover on March 31.
Present Perfect Tense:
Usually shows an action that has begun and goes on to
definite or indefinite present time.
Example:
Ih a v ep l a y e d .
We have played.
He/she has played.
You have played.
They have played.
Usage:
1. To Show an action that began in the pa st and is still
going on.
(Adverbs: for, since, in or during, the last minute, hour, day, week,
month, year, decade, century yet, so for, up to now.)
He has lived in Mumbai for fourteen years.
During last decade, many people have moved to metropolitan cit y.
2. To show an action that has begun in the past and was
finished at an indefinite time but is closely related to the
present and/or past .
(Adverbs : Already, not yet early, late, just this minute, today, this
week, fortnight, month, year, recently, yearly )
He has already finished his project.
You have been absent for last fortnight.
The students have just arrived.
They have recently announced their plan of marriage.
The present Continuous/progressive Tense :
Shows the action as a process which is incomp lete and will
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Example
Ia mp l a y i n g .
You are playing.
We are playing.
He/she/it is playing.
They are walking.
Many verbs do not occur in the continuous forms in their usual
meaning. It can be formed by the use ‘to be’, ‘ -ing form’, of the
verb.
Usage:
1. To show an ongoing action or a process
(Today, now, this minute/hour/week/fortnight/year, at this moment)
Dogs are chasing cat.
Students are learning.
She is singing.
2. To show liking or disliking of habitual action
(Always, usually most of the time, more often than not)
He is always cross -questioning.
She is always crying.
You are usually absent.
3. To show future action for which waiting now.
(This afternoon, tonight, tomorrow, next week, soon, next month)
Our guest is arriving from Mumbai at 3.00 pm tomorrow.
We are performing today evening.
The Present Perfect Continuous Tense
The present perfect continuous form may be made of have +
been+ ing (present participle)
. Example:
Ih a v eb e e np l a y i n g .
You have been playing.
We have been playi ng.
They have been playing.
He/she/it has been playing.
Usage:
(Adverbs: Just, just now, recently)
1. To show incompleteness or indefiniteness very close to the
present time, often contrasted with now. (It shows that activity is
recent.)
She has been sin ging, but she isn’t now.
He has been feeling ill, but he feels better now.
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Past Tense:
(Simple) Past Tense
Examples:
Ip l a y e d .
You played.
He/she played.
We played.
Usage:
To show events that hap pened at a specific time in the past
(Adverbs: a minute, hour, day, week, year, century age, for a
period of time, at specific time, in specific year, on day of week or
date, yesterday, in the morning/evening/last week/ month /year/
century)
He was in Mu mbai two years ago.
She started walking last week.
We came today at 12.20 am.
They crossed that city yesterday.
He and she worked in the same college for six years.
The result of first year is increased by 10 percent.
When they heard about the scienc et r a i n ,t h e yw a n t e dt o
visit there.
After reaching message, army marched.
To change from direct to indirect speech (if the reporting verb
is in past)
Shree asked, “Is he there?”
= Shree asked if he was there.
He said, “I understand this lesson?”
Hesaid that he understood this lesson.
To show about events that are not true or that might not
happen. (Use: after if)
If you loved him, you would not leave now.
If she ran, she would have won.
To show the implied time
She learnt dancing at a classical dance institute.
She didn’t eat. (In the afternoon.)
He defeated him.
To show past habits
We played many hours daily last year.
He sang daily.
The past perfect Tense :
Examples:
They had played.
She had danced.
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Usage:
To show action in the past that happened before other action
in the past
(Adverbs: already and all adverbs that can be used with the past
tense)
Before she came here, she had sung in competitions for two years.
After he had failed twice, he final ly proved his abilities to perform in
style.
When they found that the project had no merit in the project, they
gave up.
To show the action completed before specific time/certain
moment
I had already studied that subject.
She had finished her task.
ThePast Continuous Tense
Be( was/were)+ing form (present participle) of the main verb.
Example
Iw a sp l a y i n g .
You were playing.
He was playing.
We were playing.
They were playing.
Usage:
To show an act that is no longer going on (emphasis on the
length of time)
He was teaching her for three years.
I was waiting to buy a land for ten years.
We were waiting for her arrival.
To show an action in the past that was completed in the time
period mentioned
He was reading that poet last week.
We were l ooking for a car last month.
He was dancing yesterday.
To show an ongoing action at a time in the past when
something else happened
Rajiv and Ashis were playing cricket when their parents were
out.
Ajay and I were studying when our parents were financi ally
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The Past Perfect Continuous Tense
Examples
Ih a db e e nr e a d i n g .
He had been reading.
She had been reading.
They had been reading.
We had been reading.
Usage:
To show an action that was going on in the remote past and
continued up t o that time.
He had been trying to meet his parents for three months
before he finally succeeded.
The Future Tense
Will or shall and if required the infinitive is required to form
the future tense.
Example
I will play cricket next year.
She will pla y cricket next month.
You will play cricket next week.
The (Simple) Future Tense
Example
I will sing.
He will sing.
You will sing.
They will sing.
We will sing.
Usage
To present schedule(s) and upcoming events
The practice will begin on 18thAugust 2017.
Your classes will commence from 7thJune 2018.
To show the future events that are fixed .
He is going to play for three hours daily.
I am going to practice for two hours daily.
You are going to practice for two hours daily.
He is going to pr actice for minimum two hours daily.
To show compulsion, directive, instruction, guideline
New players are to register at three o’clock.
He is to visit doctor next week.
They are to attend a public meeting to appreciate efforts of
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To show an action that will happen in the future.
They are having lunch at one this afternoon.
His teacher is coming to congratulate to him.
Our students are delivering presentation at an international
conference next week.
The Future Perfect Te nse
Example
Iw i l lh a v ep l a y e d .
You will have played.
They will have played.
We will have played.
Usage
To show an action/act that will be completed in the future .
I shall have completed my assignment last week.
He will have left before they reach the house.
The Future Continuous Tense
Examples
I will be singing.
He will be dancing.
She will be writing.
They will be playing.
We will be playing.
Usage
To show duration, intention, or a temporary condition in the
future.
He thinks he will be learning dance the rest of life.
Their representative will be calling you soon to showcase
new educational aids.
To show the actions in future which are intentional, planned or
predictable or that will follow naturally
He will be coming by next week.
She will be staying in Mumbai till March 2018.
The salesperson will be coming by this afternoon.
The Future Perfect Continuous Tense
Examples
Iw i l lh a v eb e e np l a y i n g .
He will have been studying.
She will have been singing.
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Usage
To show the combination of the ideas of completeness and
specified future time
Soon, they will have been studying in London for a year.
By the end of this month, she will have been living in the
same flat for a month.
To show future ti me from a specific view .
The time came to start; later you would remember the steps.
He brought new accessories so that his bike would pass the
safety inspection.
He hurried because he knew that he was going to be late.
She was happy because she though t she was going to win
the competition.
.
Assignment
Fill in the blanks.
1. The train ---at 1.00 pm.
2. She___ call you tomorrow.
3. I____playing cricket.
4. He _____ on time.
5. They____ true.
1.8 LET US SUM UP:
An article is an adjective. Like an adjective, articl em o d i f i e s
noun. In English language there are two articles: a or an and the.
These are used to specify whether a noun refers to a specific or a
general person, thing or place. Article ‘the’ is used to refer to the
specific or particular nouns whereas art icle ‘a or an’ is used to
modify or specify non -specific or non -particular nouns.
‘Preposition ’i saw o r dt h a t‘ shows relationship. ’ This relationship
may be in ‘time and space,’ indifferent ‘ideas or entities’ ,a n d
the relationship of a ‘person or thing ’for which it stands. A
sentence structure can be simple, compound or complex according
to the kinds of clauses in the sentence. A simple sentence has one
independent or main clause. (Example: I am happy.) A compound
sentence has two or more than two inde pendent clauses without
any dependent or subordinate clauses. (The train was crowded; I
had to stand for three hours.) A complex sentence has one
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Keywords:
Article :An article is an adjective, and like an adjective, article
modifies noun.
Conjunction : A part of speech that connects or links words,
phrases or clauses to convey expected meaning.
Preposition: A part of speech, expressing a relation to another
word or element
Prepositional phrase : A set of organised words which has
preposition and modifiers.
Tense : Tense refers to the time of action or condition

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Unit -2
BASIC LANGUAGE SKILLS -PART -TWO
(Subject Verb Agreement, Question Tag,
Direct and Indirect Speech, Voice)
UNIT STRUCTURE
2.0. Objectives
2.1. Subject -Verb Agreement
2.2. Question Tag
2.3. Direct and Indirect Speech
2.4. Voice
2.5. Let’s Sum U p
2.6. Suggested Reading
2.0OBJECTIVES
The Unit will acquaint the learners to the following concepts:
Subject -verb agreement
Question tag
Direct and Indirect speech
Active and passive voice
2.1. SUBJECT -VERB AGREEMENT
Subject -verb agreement is a kind o f propriety or balance between
the subject and the verb in the sentence. In other words a verb
must agree with its subject in terms of number and person. If there
is irregularity or imbalance or mismatch in subject and verb, there is
a grammatical mistake.
Let’s try to understand the concepts of subject, verb, number
and person before we proceed.
What is subject in a sentence? The answers we get by the
questions such as who are we talking about in the sentence? Or
who is performing the action in the senten ce? Thus, the subject is
an agent or doer of action. In an example, Rama eats a mango, the
answer of who is performing the action of eating mango is Rama;
hence the subject in the above example is Rama.
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state. It is a soul of the sentence. The verb can always be identified
by the following tests:
What a person or a thing does;
What’s done to a person or a thing; or
What a perso n or thing is.
Hence, the action word of our example is ‘eat’; therefore the word,
‘eat’ is a verb.
Person and number are grammatical terms that have to do
with the notions of singular or plural forms of subject and verbs. In
English grammar there are di fferent persons such as first person (I,
We), second person (you) and third person (He, she, it, they)
whereas there are two numbers namely singular (I, you, he, she, it)
and plural (we, you, they). The first person refers to a speaker from
whose point of view the idea is expressed; the second person is a
person spoken to; and the third person is one about whom or which
spoken about.
The verb in a sentence matches in person and number with
the subject in the sentence. The person and number of the subject
are reflected in the verb. Let’s look at the general but prominent
rules of subject -verb agreement.
Rule 1: If the subject is singular, the verb must also conjugate with
singular; and if plural, it must agree with plural form of verb.
Example:
1.Ramesh is a student of Institute of Distance and Open Learning.
2.Ramesh and Rahim are good friends.
In example 1, the subject (Ramesh) is singular hence the verb (is) it
agrees with is also singular, while in example 2, the subject
(Ramesh and Rahim) is plura l the verb (are) is also plural.
Rule 2: ‘And’ and ‘Both’ are correlative conjunctions which always
constitute a plural unit, therefore they take plural verb.
Example:
3. Karan and Arjun are coming to Mumbai University today.
4. Both his commitment and hard -work have been appreciated.
Rule 3: When the components of noun phrase refer to the same
person or object or idea, the verb is always singular.
Example:
5. My cousin Laxmi always calls in the morning.
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Rule 4: When the noun phrases are coordinated by neither…nor,
or either…or, the number of verb will match the number of the noun
phrase closest to the verb.
Example:
6. Neither he nor his children have arrived yet.
7. Either students or teacher is to be blamed.
The above example 6 and 7 maintain the ‘principles of
proximity’ in that the noun closer to the verb decides the number of
the verb. For instance, ‘his children’ in example 6 is close to the
verb which is in plural hence the verb is ‘have’ and ‘teacher’ in
example 7 is closer to the verb, so the verb is in singular.
Rule 5: Use singular verb with distances, periods of time, sum of
money etc. when considered as a unit.
Example:
8. Ten years is the maximum s entence for that crime.
OR
Ten thousand rupees is a big amount.
BUT
Ten thousand rupees are found in the bag.
Rule 6: In case of collective nouns such as group, jury, team, class
committee, crowd etc, the verb might be singular or plural
depending on the writer’s intention.
Example:
9. Most of the jury is here.
OR
Most of the jury are here.
10. The staff isdeciding how they want to vote. (wrong)
The staff aredeciding how they want to vote. (correct)
In such cases one must be consistent in usi ng the verb, be it
singular or plural.
So these are the general but prominent rules or conventions
that one must be careful while matching the number and person of
the subject and the verb it takes. This very practice is grammatically
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2.2. QUESTION TAG
A sentence, by and large, is considered to be a group of
words arranged in such a way that they have a complete sense.
We have also learned in our primary and secondary schools that
there are four types of sentences viz . Assertive Sentence,
Interrogative Sentence, Exclamatory Sentence, and Imperative
Sentence.
In respect of Interrogative Sentence, structurally, it can also
be said that as there are different sentence patterns, there are
different question patterns too. We ask questions to seek new
information or to seek conformation of views. Popularly they are
known as wh -question, yes -no question and question tag. Wh -
question which is asked to seek new information, is called so for it
begins with wh -words such as who, what, why, where, when and
how, for example what is your name? On the other hand, yes -no
question is answered by yes or no; for example, are you studying
English grammar? Yes, I am or No, I am not, etc. And finally, the
question tag is a sort of short for mo fI n t e r r o g a t i o na d d e da tt h ee n d
of a sentence. The question tag is asked to seek confirmation of
views; for example, he is a boy, isn’t he? Another feature of
question tag is the reverse order of subject -operator (auxiliary
verb). It is negative if th e main clause if affirmative and vice versa.
The tone of the tag operator may be rising or falling. The structure
of the question is the sequence of subject and operator wherein the
subject comes before the verb. whereas in yes -no question
involves subject -operator inversion and rising intonation.
In addition, the kind and degree or length of answers
decides if the question is closed ended or open ended. The former
allows for many answers or the number of possible answers is
endless or open to many possibil ities while in the close -ended
questions, the answer is limited or there’s only one correct answer.
Question tags are short questions at the end of statements.
They are mainly used in speech when one wants to:
confirm that something is true or not ,o r
toencourage a reply from the person one is speaking to.
Apositive statement is followed by a negative question tag.
Rahul isfrom Amritsar, isn't he?
Radha canspeak English, can't she?
Anegative statement is followed by a positive question tag.
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When the verb in the main sentence is in simple present ,t h e
question tag is formed with do/does
You play the guitar, don't you?
Komal likes cricket, doesn't she?
If the verb is in the past simple the question tag is formed with did.
They went to the movie, didn't they?
She studied in Australia, didn't she?
When the statement contains a word with a negative meaning, the
question tag has to be positive
Hehardly ever walks, does he?
They rarely eat in restaurants, dothey?
2.3. DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH
Direct Speech isthe message of the speaker conveyed or
reported in his/her own actual words without any change.
Indirect Speech is the message of the speaker conveyed or
reported through someone else.
Example on Process of Conversion from Direct to Indirect Speech
a) Direct: Radha said, “I am very busy now.”
b) Indirect: Radha said that she was very busy then.
1.All inverted commas or quotation marks are omitted and the
sentence ends with a full stop.
2.Conjunction ‘that’ is added before the indirect statement.
3.The pronoun ‘I’ is changed to ‘she’. (The Pronoun is changed
in Person)
4.The verb ‘am’ is changed to ‘was’. (Present Tense is changed
to Past)
5.The adve rb ‘now’ is changed to ‘then’.
Conversion Rules as per the Reporting Verb
When the reporting or principal verb is in the Past Tense, all
Present tenses of the Direct Speech are changed into the
corresponding Past Tenses.
a) Direct: Hesaid, “I am unwell .”
b) Indirect: Hesaid (that) he was unwell.
If the reporting verb is in the Present or Future Tense, the tenses of
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a) Direct: Hesays/will say, “I am unwell.”
b) Indirect: Hesays/will say thatheisunwell.
The Tense in Indirect Speech is NOT CHANGED if the words within
the quotation marks talk of a universal truth or habitual action.
a) Direct: They said, “We cannot live without water.”
b) Indirect: They said that we cannot live without water.
Conversion R ules of Present Tense in Direct Speech
Simple Present Changes to Simple Past
a) Direct: "Iamexcited", she said.
b) Indirect: She said that she was excited.
Present Continuous Changes to Past Continuous
a) Direct: "Iam reading an o v e l " ,h ee x p l a ined.
b) Indirect: He explained that he was reading an o v e l .
Present Perfect Changes to Past Perfect
a) Direct: She said, "He has finished his homework”.
b) Indirect: She said that he had finished his homework.
Present Perfect Continuous Changes t o Past Perfect Continuous
a) Direct: "Ihave been to Rajasthan", he told me.
b) Indirect: He told me that he had been to Rajasthan.
Conversion Rules of Past & Future Tense
Simple Past Changes to Past Perfect
a) Direct: He said, “Ira arrived on Mon day."
b) Indirect: He said that Ira had arrived on Monday.
Past Continuous Changes to Past Perfect Continuous
a) Direct: "We were living in Goa", they told me.
b) Indirect: They told me that they had been living in Goa.
Future Changes to Present C onditional
a) Direct: He said, "I will be in Kolkata tomorrow."
b) Indirect: He said that he would be in Kolkata the next day.
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a) Direct: She said, " I'll be using the car next Friday.”
b) Indirect: She said that she would be using the car next
Friday.
Changes in Modals
CAN changes into COULD
a) Direct: He said, "I cancycle."
b) Indirect: He said that he could cycle.
MAY changes into MIGHT
a) Direct: He said, "I may buy a house.”
b) Indirect: He said that he might buy a house.
MUST changes into HAD TO/WOULD HAVE TO
a) Direct: He said, "I must work hard.”
b) Indirect: He said that he had to work hard.
Modals that DO NOT Change: Would, Could, Might, Should, Ought
to.
a) Direct :He said, "I should face the challenge.”
b) Indirect: He said that he should face the challenge.
Conversion of Interrogative
Reporting Verb like ‘said/ said to’ changes to asked, enquired or
demanded
a) Direct: Hesaid to me, “What are you doing?”
b)Indirect: Heasked me what I was doing.
If sentence begins with auxiliary verb, the joining clause should be
if or whether.
a) Direct: He said, “ Willyou come for the ceremony?”
b) Indirect: He asked them whether they would come for the
ceremony .
If sentence begins with ‘wh’ questions then no conjunction is used
as the "question -word" itself act as joining clause.
a) Direct: “Where do you live?” asked the girl.
b) Indirect: The girl enquired where Il i v e d .
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Commands and Requests
Indirect Speech is introduced by some verbs like ordered,
requested, advised and suggested. Forbid(s)/ forbade is used for
the negative sentences. The imperative mood is changed into the
Infinitive.
a) Direct: Raju said to Amit, “Go away.”
b) Indirect: Raju ordered Amit to go away.
c)Direct: He said to her, “Please wait.”
d) Indirect: Herequested herto wait.
Exclamations and Wishes
Indirect Speech is introduced by some words like grief, sorrow,
happiness, applaud. Excl amatory sentence changes into assertive
sentence and Interjections are removed.
a) Direct: He said, “ Alas! Ia mu n d o n e . ”
b) Indirect: Heexclaimed sadly that he was broke.
Change of Pronouns
The first person of the reported speech changes according t ot h e
subject of reporting speech.
a) Direct: She said, “ Ia m in tenth standard.”
b) Indirect: She says that shewas in tenth standard.
The second person of reported speech changes according to the
object of reporting speech.
a) Direct: He says to them ,"You have completed your job.”
b) Indirect: He tells them thatthey have completed their job.
The third person of the reported speech doesn't change.
a) Direct: H e says, " Sheis in eleventh standard.”
b) Indirect: He says that sheis in ele venth standard.
Change of Place and Time
Words expressing nearness in time or place in Direct Speech are
generally changed into words expressing distance in Indirect
Speech.
Now --then
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Ago --before
Thus –so
Today --that day
Tomorrow --the next day
This --that
Yesterday --the day before
These --those
Hither —thither
Come --go
Hence –thence
Next week/month --following week/month
a) Direct: She said, “My father came yesterday. ”
b) Indirect: She said that her father had come the day before.
c)Direct: She says/will say, “My father came yesterday.”
Indirect: She says/will saythat her father had come yesterday .
(Here the reporting ver b ‘says’ is in the present tense OR ‘will say’
is in future tense; hence the time expression ‘yesterday’ won’t
change.)
Punctuation
The words that are actually spoken should be enclosed in
quotes and begin with a capital letter
Example: He said, “You are r ight.”
Comma, full stop, question mark, or exclamation mark must be
present at the end of reported sentences and are placed inside
the closing inverted comma or commas.
Example: He asked, “Can I come with you?”
If direct speech comes after the information about who is
speaking, comma is used to introduce the piece of speech,
placed before the first inverted comma.
Example: She shouted, “Stop talking!”
Example: “Thinking back,” she said, “he didn't expect to
win.” (Comma is used to separate the two reported speech and
no capital letter to begin the second sentence).
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1.Use the reporting verb, "say" or "said to" in its correct tense.
2.Remove the conjunctions "that, to, if or whether etc" wherever
necessary.
3.Insert quotation marks, question mark, exclamation and full
stop, as per the mood of the sentence.
4.Put a comma before the statement.
5.Write the first word of the statement with capital letter.
6.Change the past tense into present tense wher ever the
reporting verb is in the past tense.
7.Convert the past perfect either into past tense or present
perfect as found necessary.
Example
a)Indirect: Heasked whether he is coming.
b)Direct: Hesaid to him, “Are you coming?”
2.4. VOICE
In the active voice, the subject of the sentence Doesthe action:
Example: John painted thehouse last week.
Subject /verb /o b j e c t
In the passive voice, the subject of the sentence Receives the
action.
Example: The house was painted last week by John.
Subject /verb
Notice that the object of the active sentence (house) became
thesubject of the passive sentence.
PASSIVE VOICE: USE
The passive voice is used when:
1.We do not know who did the action
Example: The documents were stolen.
(we don’t know wh o stole the documents)
2.The receiver of the action is more important
Example: The pyramids were built nearly 5,000 years ago by the
ancient Egyptians.
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PASSIVE VOICE: FORM
To change an ac tive voice sentence to a passive voice sentence:
1.Make the object of the active sentence into the subject of the
passive sentence.
2.Use the verb “to be” in the same tense as the main verb of the
active sentence.
3.Use the past participle of the main verb of th e active sentence.
Some examples of active and passive voice:
Active: People drink champagne on New Year’s Eve.
Passive: Champagne is drunk on New Year’s Eve.
Active: Chefs use these machines to mix the ingredients.
Passive: These machines are used to mix the ingredients.
Active: They renovated the restaurant in 2004.
Passive: The restaurant was renovated in 2004.
Active: The teachers informed the students that the class had been
cancelled.
Passive: The students were informed that the class had been
cancelled.
PASSIVE VOICE: PRESENT
In the present, the passive voice uses the verbs isandare+ past
participle of the main verb.
The passive voice present is often used to describe:
Processes
First the apples are picked ,t h e nt h e y are cleaned ,a n df i n a lly
they’ re packed andshipped to the market.
General thoughts, opinions, and beliefs
New York is considered the most diverse city in the U.S.
It is believed that Amelia Earhart’s plane crashed in Pacific
Ocean.
Hungarian is seen as one of the world’s most difficult languages
to learn.
Skin cancers are thought to be caused by excessive exposure
to the sun.
PASSIVE VOICE: PAST
In the past, the passive voice uses the verbs was andwere + past
participle of the main verb.
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Events in history
George Washington was elected president in 1788.
Crimes / Accidents
Two people were killed in a drive -by shooting on Friday night.
Ten children were injured when part of the school roof
collapsed.
…as well as in many other situations when the person who did the
action is unknown or unimportant.
2.5. LET’S SUM UP
The Unit deals with the various parts of grammar like
Subject -verb agreement, Question tag, Direct and Indirect speech
and Active and Passive voice and makes unders tanding easy for
learners with various examples of each. Going through the Unit will
provide a thorough understanding of all the concepts.
2.6. SUGGESTED READING
Leech, G & Svartvik, J. A Comparative Grammar of English .
London: Longman, 1994.
Quirk R et a l.A Comprehensive Grammar of English.
London: Longman, 1985.
Jane Straus. Grammarbook.com

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Unit -3
COMPREHENSION OF AN UNSEEN
PASSAGE
UNIT STRUCTURE
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Concept of Comprehension
3.3 Understanding Ideas, Facts, Arguments, Tone, Vocabulary
in context
3.4 Strategies to answer
3.5 Sample Passages from journalis m, management and
commerce
3.6 Let us sum up
3.7 Glossary
3.8 Exercises
3.0 OBJECTIVES
To help the students understand the concept of Comprehension
To identify Ideas, Facts, Arguments, Tone, Vocabulary in
context
To understand the strategies for answer ing passage.
3.1INTRODUCTION
What is reading comprehension? It is a passage given in
the exam paper which you need to read, understand and
answer the questions that follow. Some of the passages might
be easy to understand while some others might not. Yo un e e d
to understand the passage before getting down with the
questions
3.2 CONCEPT OF COMPREHENSION
Reading Comprehension is the ability to read text,
process it and understand its meaning. . In addition, they are
aimed at testing a candidate 'sK n o w l e d g eo ft w oe l e m e n t s
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And it is interesting to note that both these elements
play a crucial role in better understanding of the passage
i.e.for understanding a text, one must have better knowledge
of vocabulary. But wha ti sm o r ec o m p l e xa n dv a r i e do u to ft h e
above two elements is the t ext Comprehension.
The current trend is that, the questions that come in the
reading comprehension areinference based i.e. the questions
do not have answers direct ly in the passage, butone has to
infer from the given passage.
3.3 UNDERSTANDING IDEAS, FACTS, ARGUMENTS,
TONE, VOCABULARY IN CONTEXT
Now let’s move towards the approach that one should follow
while attempting a reading comprehension in the exam .
The most common suggestion a nd approach is first read
the entire passage and then answer the question that follows.
Firstly let’s discuss this approach in detail.
Try to make notes while solving/ reading RCs. It is
crucial for locating the appropriate information and also acts as
amental bookmark, thus helping in better understanding of the
topic.
While making notes, one must look towards and identify
following things:
i)Subject of the passage –which/what is the precise thing
the author, is talking about.
ii)Main idea of the passage –what the author is saying about
the subject.
iii)Tone of the author of the passage -which is manner that
theauthor has adopted in the passage.
As soon as one figure out the above three things and
central point of the passage, one will be fam iliar with the
gist [GI –general Idea + S –Structure + T -Tone] of the
passage. This will also help you to build a thematic
composition and logical sequence of the passage. Thus enable
you to answer questions from particular parts of the passage.
But th is sole approach is beneficial for the ones who
generally read very fast.T h e n what ap proach should one
follow in a reading comprehension ,below are the some of the
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1.Instead of reading the entire passage, read critically the first
and last paragraph of the reading comprehension .G e n e r a l l y
what the author is saying can be identified in the first few lines
of the passage, which in case of longer passages ,becomes
roughly 1/3rd of the passage. For the rest passage examine
hastil y, what the author has said about the subject.
Also for longer passages, try to put down in 10 -15
words, for each paragraph, what you feel are the central points
of the passage.
2.The next thing in this approach is to identify the structural
words that tell you the important Ideas or t ransitions in a
passage. These structural words play a specific role in a
sentence and paragraph.
These three kinds of words describe three roles that
words can play in a paragraph.
For e.g.
Continuity words: The author would support his point of
view further.
Contrast words :The aut hor would introduce a contradictary
point of view.
Conclusion words: The author would sum up his argument so
far.
3.Further try to recognize the words that represent positive
and negative role in the passage. These words will let you
decide whether the author is for or against the subject. Thus
these words help you establish the motive of the author.
4.Whenever a question is asked on a phrase given in the
passage, just read the three line sa b o v ea n db e l o wt h a tp h r a s e
to have an idea of what is implicit from that phrase.
3.4 STRATEGIES TO ANSWER
Now let’s d iscuss how one should attempt reading
comprehension questions in the Exam. Generally ,t h e r ea r e
two ways in which a reading comprehen sion can be attempted
which are given below:
1. PQ Approach (passage first, then the questions)
Read the entire passage thoroughly first and then read the
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Skim & Scan through the passage and keep going back and
forth with questions and passage
Read the first two paragraphs, scan all the questions and
see what you can answer, then read Para three & four ,
scan the questions and see what you c an answer, then
read Para five and six.
2. QP approach (questions first, then the passage)
Read all the ques tions with their answer options first and
then the passage
Read question one with all the options, then go through the
entire passage to answer it. Then read question two ,g o
through the entire passage. Then question three.
Just read all the question stems ,w i t h o u tr e a d i n gt h e
answer options. Then read the passage and try answering
the questions by reading them with the options.
After practicing all above strategy and approach, here is
alist of tips you must follow while doing a reading
comprehension .
1.Read the question first. Why you have to read the question
before the going through the passage? Because it saves
time to know what you are reading for!
2.Make sure you understand the question. Underline the key
word(s) in the question and look in for the ke yw o r d si nt h e
passage. What kind of information will you need to gather
when you read? Will you be looking for facts? Or will you be
using the passage to come up with your own answer?
3.Now, Read the passage. Read the passage as quickly as
you can. Look f or the answer as you read. When you find
the answer, take notice of it, but --and this is important --
don't stop reading yet! Read to the end. That way you can
be sure that your answer is the best, most complete answer
possible.
4.Try to get a general ide ao ft h ep a s s a g e .Y o ua r en o t
expected to know the meaning of all the words in the
passage. Use the key words from the question to locate the
answer in the passage as discussed.
5.Never apply your own knowledge to the given passage.
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3.5 SAMPLE PASSAGES
Unseen Passage
The election hullabaloo has meant that economic issues
have taken a back seat, and open public discussion about future
economic policies has been relatively absent. This is surprising,
because even the (admittedly problematic) opinion polls brought
out by various media organizations regularly describe economic
issues such as price rise and lack of employment opportunities as
major concerns at least in voters’ minds. Very few of the majo r
parties have come out with clear programs about what exactly they
plan to do to address the complex set of problems currently faced
by the Indian economy, and those that have done so (such as the
Left parties) have got minimal press coverage. But, in fac t,
whatever new government is formed is going to face quite
formidable challenges, both immediately and in the medium term.
And these complex challenges are, unfortunately, ignored by both
the misleadingly wishful and vague “ache din ayenge” slogan of the
major opposition party and the defensive posturing of the ruling
party.
The immediate problems are obvious. The mainstream
media has been most concerned about the flagging rate of output
growth, which is reflected in flat or declining industrial productio n
over the previous year and decelerating exports. Declining rates of
fixed investment are likely to have an impact on both infrastructure
conditions and productive capacity in the coming years. Agricultural
growth has recovered in the current year, but ma inly because of the
munificence of the 2013 monsoon, underlying the agriculture’s
continued dependence on wayward weather conditions. This
dependence is a source of concern not only in itself but because of
prognosis of the deleterious effects of El Nino o nt h ec o m i n g
monsoon, which would, in turn, affect prospects for crop production
in the coming year. And it is a pointer to how, overall, the condition
of cultivators in India still remains fragile. The other palpable
problem is the continued high rate of inflation, particularly consumer
price inflation, which has led to the situation being described as a
stagflationary one (decelerating output growth accompanied by
relatively high inflation). It is evident that this is really cost -push
inflation, driven by increases in fuel prices and by prices of food
items. So the focus of the government should be on addressing
these elements, by improving conditions of agricultural supply and
reducing the global impact of volatile food prices, and creating a
mechanism of administered fuel prices that does not expose Indian
consumers (most of whom have per capita incomes that are a small
fraction of the global average) to high and volatile global oil prices.
Yet thus, far, the official response has been to treat inflation control
as the sole domain of the central bank, in a peculiar and inevitably
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and monetary policy to be the only policy instruments to be utilised.
This blunt strategy affects investment and economic activity
adversely, and does not really control inflation since the cost -push
forces thereby deteriorate further. So the next government will have
to have a more effective strategy to address inflation.
On the basis of the above passage, ans wer the following questions:
Put a tick on the right options
1)Which among the following facts about most Indian political
parties has been asserted by the author?
√a.They are doing everything to make India self dependent
b.They are not focusing on the economic policies
c.They are giving private sector more freedom
d.They have a very bright vision for India
e.They are engaged in malpractices
2)Which of the follo wing statement is false regarding India’s
agricultural sector?
a.It largely depends on weather conditions
b.El Nino would affect crop production in coming year
√c.Monsoon of 2013 prevented agriculture to recover in the
current year
d.Condition of cultivators is still fragile in India
e.The prospect of crop production in coming year is not bright.
3)What is stagflation as per the passage?
a. Higher output growth with high inflation
Ans: Higher inflation with lower output growth
4)Which among the fo llowing option (s) is/are true in regard to the
strategies used by RBI to control Inflation as per the passage?
a.RBI considers controlling Inflation as its sole domain
b.RBI incorporates interest rates and monetary policy as its
only policy instrumen ts to control Inflation.
c.RBI’s policy action lead to further deterioration of cost push
forces
d.RBI’s strategies affect investment and economic activity
negatively
√e.All of the above
5)Which among the following option (s) is/are true regarding the
employment generation in India as per the passage?
a.The growing number of labour forces in India
b.Employment generation schemes undertaken by the Indian
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√c.Employment generation policies do not ha ve an immediate
effect in India.
d.There is a scarcity of informal activities in India
e.All of the above
6)Which of the following is farthest in meaning to Formidable as
used in the passage?
a.Horrible
√b.Feeble
c.Alarming
d.Impregnable
e.Appalling
7)Which of the following is farthest in meaning to Fragile as used
in the passage?
√a.Robust
b.Tenuous
c.Fatal
d.Liberal
e.Insignificant
8)Which of the following is farthest in meaning to Deleterious as
used in the passage?
a.Baleful
b.Jeopardizing
√c.Favorable
d.Pernicious
e.Noxious
9)Which of the following is closest in meaning to Palpable as used
in the passage?
a.Concealed
b.Apparent
√c.Obvious
d.Ambiguous
e.Disguised
10)Which of the following is closest in meaning to Dire as used in
the passage?
a.Customary
b.Abject
√c.Terrifying
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Exercises for Practice
1) SO, YOU WANT TO BE A CARTOONIST?
What writers struggle to express through numerous
newspaper columns, the cartoon manages in a pointed one -liner.
Little wonder then, that the first thing most of us like to see when
we pick up a newspaper is the cartoon. Simple though it may seem,
making a cartoon is an art that requires a combination of hard work,
training and a good sense o f humour. Cartoonists say that the
cartoons that make us laugh the most are in fact the cartoons that
are hardest to make. Even celebrated cartoonists like R.K. Laxman
admit that making a cartoon is not a piece of cake. Laxman says he
has to wait for over six hours, which includes spending a lot of time
scanning newspapers and television channels before any idea
strikes him.
So how does one become a cartoonist? Which of us has the
talent to make it? How can we master the rib -tickling strokes and
the witty one-liners? How can we make people smile or laugh?
There are few colleges or schools for cartoonists. Most cartoonists
come from art colleges, while some learn the craft on their own.
Most established cartoonists are of the view that no institute can
teach you to make a cartoon. "You can pick up the craft, you may
learn to sketch and draw in institutes, but no one can teach anyone
how to make a good cartoon," says Uday Shanker, a cartoonist with
Navbharat Times. While basics, like drawing and sketching can be
learnt in an art college, and are important skills, these alone, do not
make a good cartoonist. Because it's a question of one's creativity
and sense of humour; two qualities one simply may not have. The
advice established cartoonists give is that just because you can
sketch, don't take it for granted that you will become a cartoonist.
Read the questions given below and write the option you consider
the most appropriate in your answer sheet.
(a) What, according to Laxman, is the challenge in creating a good
cartoon?
(b)Which of these words BEST describes this passage?
(i)humorous
(ii)technical
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(c) Of the many qualities that cartoonists should have, which of the
following is not referred to directly but can be inferred from the
passage?
(i)knowledge of current
(ii)knowledge of educational technologies. institutions.
(iii)knowledge of news and
(iv)knowledge of different current affairs. languages.
(d)According to the passage, which group of people is o ft h e
opinion that one cannot learn to make a cartoon in institutions?
(i)many struggling writers.
(ii)highly creative artists.
(iii)well-respected cartoonist.
(iv)all newspaper editors.
(e)"Don't take it for granted that you will become a cart oonist."
Choose the option that is closest in meaning to the sentence.
(i)Don't assume that you will
(ii)Don't hope that you will become a cartoonist. become a
cartoonist.
(iii)Don't believe that you will
(iv)Don't imagine that you will become a cartoonist. become a
cartoonist.
2) Ulhas Mandlik, 35, a power -loom owner from Ichalkaranji,
Maharashtra, and his mother were homeward -bound one evening
when heavy rain forced them to take shelter beneath a bridge. Not
far away, a small group of labourers huddled together under a part
of the cement housing above a 16 metre deep well used to pump
water for irrigation.
Suddenly, Mandlik and his mother heard the labourers
scream. When the two got to the well, they were told that a five
year old boy named Har iya had fallen in through a side opening in
the structure. Ignoring his mother's fears, Mandlik quickly knotted
together lengths of flimsy rope belonging to the labourers and
asked them to lower him into the dark well. "I hope the rope holds,"
he thought. As he descended, Mandlik noticed the metal rungs on
the wall of the well. He grabbed hold of one and started climbing
down, when he saw the boy clinging to a pipe running up the well's
centre. Grabbing the child, Mandlik started to climb praying that the
old rungs wouldn't give away and plunge them both into the
churning water below. Their luck held and within a few minutes,
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The man fell at Mandlik's feet and offered him some m oney
as a reward. Refusing the cash, Mandlik took Hariya and his family
to a nearby eatery and offered them steaming tea to warm them up.
Several organisations have honoured Mandlik for his bravery and
presence of mind on that wet day three years ago. "I a mh a p p yI
was at the right place at the right time," he says," and was able to
return a little boy to his family."
Read the questions given below and write the option you
consider the most appropriate in your answer sheet.
(a)What first drew Ulhas and h is mother to the well?
(b) What were Ulhas' mother's fears really associated with?
(c) Which of the following could be a learning from the report?
(i)it is best not to involve oneself
(ii)one should not take shelter even in situations involving
others .b e n e a t hab r i d g ei nt h er a i n .
(iii)one cannot predict when an
(iv)metal rungs alongside the wall of accident may befall any
person. a well may not always be useful.
(d)Which of these expressions best describes Ulhas in view of this
incident?
(i)disregard for an elder's
(ii)disbelief in one's own abilities. warnings.
(iii)faith only in prayers for
(iv)concern for others with no success. expectations.
(e)Which of these did Hariya's father express on receiving his son?
(i)gratitude.
(ii)relief.
(iii)anxiety.
(iv)peace.
3) New Delhi: Atithi Devo Bhavah. To make visitors to the city feel
welcome during the Commonwealth Games, India Tourism
Development Corporation (ITDC) is set to train taxi and auto
drivers, CISF personnel posted at m onuments, dhaba owners, hotel
staff etc. Participants will be taught English as well as courtesy and
ways to communicate with tourists. At present, there is a shortage
of trained guides in the city and with Commonwealth Games
drawing close, the issue has t o be addressed promptly.munotes.in

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53
With hundreds of historical sites to visit and each monument
boasting its own unique history, foreign nationals are often left to
fend for themselves and depend on tourist books and brochures for
information. Language is another p roblem. Quite a contrast to
facilities offered in tourist sites in western countries, where trained
guides -proficient in several languages -are easily available to aid
visitors apart from group -guided trips at regular intervals. Although
the Archeological S urvey of India (ASI) plans to introduce audio
guide services in five languages at some world heritage sites our
experts point that not a single monument or tourist place in the city
has an interpretation centre where tourists can come and get all
informati on pertaining to a particular site. ASI is also in the process
of bringing out more brochures and guides for foreign visitors in the
city. Experts say such facilities are crucial if the government wants
to promote Delhi as a 'heritage city'. Various agenci es like INTACH
are also involved in the plans.
Under ITDC's plans, etiquette training for the Games will
also be provided to residents who offer rooms to foreigners under
Delhi government's bed and breakfast scheme. "House -owners will
be given hospitality related training and a brief of Indian tourism
scenario. Most visitors generally question their hosts on information
about the city so they will be provided information on the golden
triangle -Delhi, Agra and Jaipur as well as where tourists should go
visiting in Delhi," said an official.
Read the questions given below and write the option you
consider the most appropriate in your answer sheet.
(a)What are the initiatives to be taken up by the India Tourism
Development Corporation to make the visitors feel welcome
during the Commonwealth Games?
(b)How have the western countries managed to offer aid and better
facilities to their tourists?.
(c)Apart from the guides and the guided tours, Archeological
Survey of India has expressed the need for establish ing
______________ at historical sites to help tourists.
(i)interpretation centres.
(ii)rehabilitation centres.
(iii)cessation centres. (iv) training centres.
(d)What steps have been taken by ASI to promote Delhi as a
heritage site?
(i)making br ochures very informative and training the
residents.
(ii)bringing out more brochures and involving other agencies in
planning and visitor management.munotes.in

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54
(iii)offering tourists all sources of comfort for their stay and visits
to historical sites.
(iv)providing owners of bed and breakfast homes information
about Delhi, Agra and Jaipur.
(e)_________________ are to be provided to residents who offer
rooms to foreigners under ITDC's plan.
(i)comfortable stay, friendly and hospitable treatment
(ii)etique tte training, hospitality treatment
(iii)better tourist guides and interpretation centres
(iv)visits to the golden triangle cities.
4)Surgical Instruments Designed Due to Necessity
Necessity, they say, is the mother of invention. And Indian doctors
have been quite creative when hamstrung by few or no tools to
perform specific surgeries. They simply design it themselves at
one-fourth the price they are sold abroad. In fact, some of their
innovations are priced at as much as hundreds of dollars abroad.
Take 47 -year-old Dr Burjor P Banaji, pioneer of Lasik
surgery in India. He's invented over a dozen surgical instruments.
When this senior eye surgeon at Max Eye Care started Lasik,
there were few surgeons doing it worldwide and no specific
instruments w ere available either. "As I want things super -perfect, I
designed a whole slew of instruments that made my surgery more
efficient," says Banaji. The most popular instruments are Banaji
Lasik Shield and Banaji Lasik Spatula and Canulae. "It was simple.
Ih ad the designs in my head. Putting them down on paper was the
simplest thing," he says. Instruments manufacturers and large
multinationals in the US snapped them up. "They would send me
computer generated drawings which I would correct and send back.
Their level of execution was astounding. Within two weeks of the
designs being finalised, the instruments were in the world market."
His instruments are priced at hundreds of dollars each in the
US, and are also sold in Switzerland, South America, Korea,
Easter n Europe, Africa and Japan. They're available in India at a
fraction of the price.
Shobha John/TNN
Write the option that you consider the most appropriate in your
answer sheets
(a) Why have some Indian doctors created their own surgical tools?
(b)What has Dr Burjor P Banaji created?munotes.in

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55
(c)Where does Dr Banaji get the instruments manufactured?
(i)India
(ii)the United States of America
(iii)Switzerland
(iv)Japan
(d)The term hamstrung refers to ……………………………
(i)restricted
(ii)helped
(iii)harmed
(iv)liberated
(e)What does the phrase slew of instruments refer to?
(i)a wide range of instruments
(ii)instruments used for slaying
(iii)tools of a similar nature
(iv)surgical instruments
5) Alfred Hitchcock was a man with vivid imagi nation, strong
creative skills and a passion for life. With his unique style and
God-gifted wit he produced and directed some of the most
thrilling films that had the audience almost swooning with fright
and falling off their seats with laughter. Alfred Hi tchcock was
greatly influenced by American films and magazines. At the age
of 20, he took up a job at the office of Paramount Studio,
London. Using imagination, talent and dedication, he made
each of his endeavours a success. He took great pleasure in
work ing in the studio and often worked all seven days a week.
He moved to the USA in 1939 and got his American citizenship
in 1955. Here, he produced many more films and hosted a
weekly television show. No matter from where his ideas came,
whether a magazine a rticle, a mystery novel or incident, his
films had the typical "Hitchcock touch" -where the agony of
suspense was relieved by interludes of laughter! Hitchcock was
knighted in 1980.
Write the option that you consider the most appropriate in
your answer s heets.
(a)What qualities helped Hitchcock achieve success?
(i)his imagination, creativity and passion for life
(ii)his hard work, his imagination and his sense of humour
(iii)his creativity, his passion for life and his sense of humour
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56
(b)What is Alfred Hitchcock famous as?
(i)writer
(ii)film producer
(ii)Television actor
(iv) film actor
(c)What did the typical Hitchcock -style of film -making include?
(i)fear and passion
(ii)fear and humour
(iii)suspense and humour
(iv)fear and suspense
(d)What did Alfred Hitchcock do in United States?
(i)He produced films and read magazines
(ii)He produced films and television serials
(iii)He read magazines and saw films
(iv)He pro duced films and hosted a television show
(e)What does the word swooning mean?
(i)fainting
(ii)falling
(iii)hiding
(iv)becoming conscious
6)I was overwhelmed with gratuitous advice. Well -meaning yet
ignorant friends thrust their opinions into u nwilling ears. The
majority of them said I couldn't do without meat in the cold
climate. I would catch consumption. Mr. Z went to England and
caught it on account of his foolhardiness. Others said I might do
without flesh but without wine I could not move. Iw o u l db e
numbed with cold.
One went so far as to advise me to take eight bottles of
whisky, for I should want them after leaving Aden. Another wanted
me to smoke, for his friend was obliged to smoke in England. Even
medical men, those who had been to England told the same tale. I
replied that I would try my best to avoid all these things, but if they
were found to b e absolutely necessary I did not know what to do. I
may here mention that my aversion to meat was not so strong then
as it is now. I was even betrayed into taking meat about six or
seven times at the period when I allowed my friends to think for me.
But in the steamer, my ideas began to change. I thought I should
not take meat on any account. My mother, before consenting to my
departure, had exacted a promise from me not to take meat. So, I
was bound not to take it, if only for the sake of the promise. The
fellow passengers in the steamer began to advise us (the friend
who was with me and myself) to try it. --
MKG a n d h imunotes.in

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57
Write the correct option in your answer sheets
(a)The advice the narrator received from his friends was
NOT.......................
(i)well-meaning
(ii)uncalled for
(iii)sought after
(iv)given by friends
(b)When was the narrator offered the advice?
(i)when he was leaving for England
(ii)when he was in Aden
(iii)when he had started eating meat
(iv)when he was on the steam er
(c)Why did the narrator's friends advise him to take meat?
(i)everyone in England ate meat
(ii)meat would cause consumption
(iii)meat -eating would keep him healthy
(iv)he would find it tasty
(d)The narrator was reluctant to eat flesh as ………… …………….
(i)he had never eaten it before
(ii)he did not like the taste
(iii)it was not available on the steamer
(iv)he had promised his mother he would not do so
(e)What does the term consumption here refer to?
(i)eat
(ii)give up
(iii)a dise ase
(iv)cold
3.6 LET US SUM UP
Reading comprehension is a passage given in the exam
paper
Reading Comprehension is the ability to read text, process
it and understand its meaning
While solving look out for main ideas and tone of the author
Use vocabul ary in context to understand the passage
munotes.in

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58Unit -4
OFFICIAL CORRESPONDENCE
UNIT STRUCTURE
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Basic Principals of Business Communication
4.3 Parts of a Letter
4.4 Layouts of Letter
4.5 Types of Letter
4.6 Lets Sum Up
4.7 Unit End Exercises
4.0 OBJECTIVES
This unit will make learners familiar with the concept of
official business correspondence, its importance and the way it is
carried out. Learners will understand the structure of a business
letter, its various parts, and t heir use. They will know the basic
seven principles of communication, their significance and use in
writing an effective business letter. The unit will also familiarize
learners with different formats of a business letter, used throughout
the commercial wo rld. This unit will also introduce learners to a few
common types of business letters, written in the course of routine
business activities. A few samples of letters are given in this unit to
help learners to understand how to write a standard business let ter
of the given type. The unit end exercises are devised to give them
the practice of writing the concepts and letters both.
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Official correspondence is an integral part of business
activities. Business letters are written by individual st o
organizations, organizations to organizations, or organizations to
stakeholders. They provide means communication, scope for
feedback, help to build professional relationships, concrete record,
and legal validity. Even in today’s fast moving and const antly
connected world of internet, business letters are not only
unavoidable, but vital. It is therefore important to know how to write
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594.2BASIC PRINCIPALS OF BUSINESS
COMMUNICATION
According to Microsoft Office Online, at least one third of all
office work is letter writing. A business letter represents both the
employee and the employer. A business letter is a formal
communication. One must balance the objective and professional
writing with personal touch. There are few basic principles of good
and effective letter writing. They are called seven C’s of
communication. They are as follows.
1)Clarity
It means that the message should be clear and easy to
understand. The language used should be simple and
unambiguous. There should be clarity in thoughts and ideas. Too
many ideas crowded together dilute the message and may make it
ambiguous. The message needs to come out clearly from the
communication rather than the recipient having to assume things
and coming back to you for more information. It saves cost and the
time of both, the sender and reader.
2)Completeness
A complete message contains all the information the reader
needs in order to know and respond to sender or take the action.
The message must be complete and prepare da sp e rt ot h e
receiver’s requirements. Having all desired and crucial information,
helps in better decision -making. The sender should give additional
information since the receiver may need it. It saves the time and
efforts of receiver to communicate wit h sender in order to ask for it.
3)Correctness
Correctness implies correctness of information and its presentation.
Information presented should be factually correct, and supported by
proof. It should be grammatically correct as minor errors like
spelling m istakes and incorrect grammar can ruin the credibility of
the sender. It is important to get the structure of the presentation
correct as it helps the reader to understand it with ease.A correct
use of language increases trustworthiness and the receiver wi ll feel
that they are taken seriously.
4)Conciseness
The principle of conciseness implies economical use of
words. A business correspondence is differentiated from the
personal one by its objective nature and short length. The message
should be conveyed in least possible words. Lengthy sentences,
unnecessary explanations, repetitions, and irrelevant data should
be avoided. Conciseness is a necessity for effective
communication. It is both time -saving as well as cost -saving. Sincemunotes.in

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60a concise message is to the point, it is more appealing to the reader
and keeps him focused on main message.
5)Courtesy
Courtesy implies being aware not only of the perspective of
others, but also their feelings. It is not mere superficial politeness
through socially accepted manners, but one that grows out of
respect and concern for others. Courteous communication is
friendly, open, and honest without flattery, hidden insults or
passive -aggressive tones. You keep your reader's viewpoint in
mind, and you're empathetic to their needs. C ourtesy keeps the
message positive and focused at the audience.
6)Concreteness
Concreteness means being specific, definite, and avoid
being vague and general. Concreteness reduces the possibility for
misinterpretation and substantiates sender’s stand.
7)Consideration
Consideration also known as “you principle” means having
regard for the receiver’s opinions, knowledge, mindset,
background, etc. in order to have an effective communication. In
order to communicate, the sender must relate to the target recipien t
and be involved.
4.3 PARTS OF A LETTER
A business letter has a specific structure and it is written
systematically. These guidelines are accepted globally. They create
uniformity in business letters, which help readers to follow and
understand them eas ily.
Compulsory or Standard Elements of a Letter
The elements that form the basic structure of a business
letter are called compulsory or standard elements of a letter. They
are essential parts, without which a letter cannot be created.
1)Heading or L etter head
The heading, also known as head address or letter head
contains information relating to the name of the organization and its
address. It is sender’s address. Companies usually use stationary
where heading or letterhead is specially designed at t he top of the
sheet. If the company does not have letterhead, the company’s full
name and address should be typed at the top of the page. The
letterhead includes following details.
a)Name of the organization
b)Address of the organizationmunotes.in

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61c)Phone and fax numbers of the organization
d)Website address and Email ID of the organization
e)Logo of the organization ( if present)
f)Registration Number of the organization ( optional)
g)Year of Establishment of the organization (optional)
A standard example of the letterhead is gi ven below.
STELLAR COMPUTERS LIMITED
Registered Office: Mayfair Apartments, 1, 2/ C Block,
Navaroji Street, Off Colaba Causeway, colaba, Mumbai -400005
Phone -(022)22154989, 22161129
Fax-022-21412781
Email -stellcomp@vsnl.com
Website -www.stelco.com
2) Date line
Date is an important element of a bus iness letter. Date
enables quick references in future and helps in prompt action and
orderly filing. The date consists of day, month and year on which
the letter is signed. Place of date in a letter depends upon the style
of the letter used. Following are two ways of writing date in a letter.
01 December 2017 (day, Month, Year format)
Note that comma is not used anywhere in this format
December 01, 2017 (Month, day, Year format)
Note that, a comma is used to separate day and year.
3) Inside Address
This is receiver’s address. It includes name, designation and
full address of the receiver. It is written one space below the
dateline, on the left margin. The use of punctuation ,intheinside
address depends upon the style of the letter used. Below are few
exam ples of inside address
When the name and designation of the receiver is known,
Mr. Pramod Kulkarni
Sales Manager
Modern Furniture
8,10/ Vasant Kunj
Andheri (East)
Mumbai -400069
When only designation of the receiver is known
The Superintendent
Department of Water Supply
Kalyan Dombivali Municipal Corporation
Thane district -421306munotes.in

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624) Salutation
Salutation is the way sender greets the receiver or the
addressee. It is the complementary greeting with which the writer
begins his letters. It shows the respect, affection or politeness, and
sets the tone of the letter. The choice of salutation depends upon
the relationship between the writer and the reader. It begins with,
‘Dear’. Below are given few samples of salutations in various
cases.
When receiver’s name is unknown, but designation is known
Dear Purchase Manager
Dear Colleagues
Dear Sir
Dear Madam
When a letter is addressed to an organization in general, and name
or designation or gender or the number of recipient is not known
Dear Ladies/Gentlemen
Salutat ion can change based on the relationship between the
sender and receiver.
Dear Dr. Sharma (Most formal)
Dear Ms Bhalerao (Moderately formal)
Dear Sunil (Moderately informal)
5) Body of theLetter/ Message
Body of a business letter c ontains the message of the letter. It is
the most important part of the letter and usually consists of three to
four paragraphs. The body of letter is divided into three segments -
introduction, discussion and conclusion. The first segment or
introduction m ay contain one or two paragraphs. The opening
paragraph should engage the attention of the reader. It should give
the brief introduction of the writer and the purpose of the letter. The
middle segment or discussion contains the subject matter. It should
cover all the relevant points that the writer wants to convey, in
simple, clear and straightforward manner. Closing segment or
concluding paragraph restates the purpose of the letter. It puts
forward the expectations of writer, and the action he wants the
reader to take. The body of the letter should be short and to the
point.
6) Complimentary Close
It is a short, polite way of ending a letter. It is written two spaces
below the last line of the body of the letter. It is in line with the
salutation. Compli mentary close can be Witten as follows
Yours Faithfully / Yours Truly -most formal
Yours Sincerely -Moderately formal
Yours Cordially -Moderately informalmunotes.in

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637) Signature Block
Signature is the assent of the writer to the letter and therefore
carries auth enticity. It plays important role in legal matters of a
business. It contains signature, name and designation of the
sender. Without the signature of the authentic person the letter is
considered neither complete nor legal. The signature is done two or
four spaces below the last line of the complimentary close. The
specimen of signature block is given below.
Signature
(Name of The sender)
Designation
Optional or Need Based Elements of a Letter
The elements other than the main framework of a letter are cal led
optional elements or parts of a letter. They are chosen as per
individual writer’s requirement to make the letter easily accessible
to the reader. They are as follows.
1)Reference Number or File Number
Reference number is Witten in a business letter fo rt h ep u r p o s eo f
proper filing and easy accessibility. In case of regular trade
associates, organizations write the reference number of both
parties as, ‘our reference’ and ‘your reference’. It is written between
the heading and dateline.
2)Addressee Notati on
Addressee notation is written to make the readership of the letter
restricted. It is written two lines aboveinside address, two lines
below the date. It is written in capital letter. It should be used
sparingly, and only in case of sensitive matters. Fo llowing words
can be used as addressee notation.
Confidential, Personal, through proper channel only,
3)Attention Line
Attention line is used to forward the letter to concerned person, or
title (for example accounts manager) or department (for example
sales department) in the organization. It saves the time of sender
as well as reader. It is paced one space below the inside address
and one space above the salutation.
4)Subject Line
It contains the purpose of writing the letter, and helps the reader to
quick ly understand the main topic of the letter. Normally the subject
sentence is preceded with the word ‘subject’. It is placed double
space below the salutation line, and one space above the body of
the letter, beginning at the left margin or at the center.munotes.in

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645)Identification Mark
Identification mark or reference initials are initials of names of
persons who drafted and typed the letter. It is written down for the
identification of the people in future reference. It is written below the
last line of signature b lock.
6)Enclosure Notation
Enclosures are documents related to the subject matter of the
letter, and mentioned in the letter, for example brochures, price
lists, bills, cheques and other such documents. They are sent along
with the letter as attachments. En closure notation lists all such
documents to be sent with the letter; hence it does not appear
when no documents are sent. It is placed below the identification
mark if present, otherwise below signature block.
7)Copy Notation
Usually written as abbreviatio n ‘C.C’, carbon copies contain the list
of people to whom copies of the letter are sent, along with the
addressee. It is written below enclosure if present, otherwise below
the last entry of the letter.
8)Post Script
Commonly known as the abbreviation ‘PS’, a post script is written
after the letter is closed. It is usually done when the writer forgets to
put in some information or message in the main part. However it
can be used to mention the information that is unrelated to the
subject matter of the letter , but might of some importance. It should
be very precise, to the point, and short. Post script is placed as last
entry in a letter.
9)Mailing Notation
The mail notation is used to record the method of delivery such as
special hand delivery, courier, air m ail, registered mail, speed post
or some other special way. Mail notation can be typed on the
carbon copy to be kept by the sender. It is placed either above the
inside address or below the reference initials.
4.4 FORMATS OF BUSINE SS LETTER
There are va rious ways in which content is arranged in
business letters. Depending upon the individual preferences or the
organizational policy particular format is adopted for use. Formats
currently in use are given below.
a)The full block/ Complete block/ Block format
b)The modified block format
c)The semi block format
d)The indented format
e)The hanging indented format
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65a)The Full Block / Complete Block/ Block Format
It is called so because all the elements are arranged in
blocks without any indentation. In this format, every part of the letter
begins directly from the left hand margin. They are separated from
each other by double spacing. In body of the letter, paragraphs are
separated from each other by single spacing. Punctuatio n is used
only in the body of the letter.
Layout of Full Block Form
(Heading)
(2 spaces)
-------------------- (date)
(2 spaces)
-----------------------
--------------------------
-------------------------- (Inside A ddress)
(2 spaces)
--------------------- (Salutation)
(2 spaces)
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------ ---------------------- (Body of letter )
(2 spaces)
----------------- (Complimentary Close )
(2 or 4 spaces)
------------------
------------------ (Signature Block)
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
b)The Modified Block Format
This is a modified form of the Full -block format. In this format, the
date line, complimentary close and signature block are aligned at
the centre or right hand margin. A comma is put after the date,
house number, in complimentary close and signature block.
c)The Semi Block Format
It is similar to modified block format, except that the first line of
each para graph in the body of the letter, is indented.
4.5 TYPES OF LETTER
A business letter is written by an individual to organization,
or by an organization to its various stakeholders for business
related purposes. Business letters aim to receive or convey
information, in order to initiate some kind of action from their
receivers. Based on the purpose of letter writing, business letter
came to be grouped into various types such as, enquiry letters,
order letters, complaint letters, claim and adjustment lette rs, creditmunotes.in

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66letters, sales letters, collection letters, apology letters,
acknowledgement letters, job application letters and so on.
Success of a business depends upon the ability of the writer to
persuade the reader. Tone of a letter changes according to t he
purpose of letter writing. Below are discussed more common types
of business letters.
1)Enquiry Letters
Enquiry letter is a type of business letter that is written to
individuals or companies asking about product or service. Enquiry
letters ask questions or elicit information from the recipient. It can
be of two types, solicited and unsolicited. Enquiry letters written in
response to advertisements of business or agencies regarding their
products or services are called solicited letters. The letter of enq uiry
is unsolicited when the sender writes it without being prompted in
any way. Enquiry letter should make all requests and inquiries clear
and succinct and list the exact information needed by sender.
Proper contact information of the sender should be pr ovided, to
make it easy for the reader to respond. An enquiry letter typically
asks following questions.
The range of products/ services available
Brochures, price list, discounts, schemes and offers
Period and time of delivery if ordered
Mode of payment
Damage policy, warranty, Guaranty, packaging cost
Asample enquiry letter is given below in modified block format.
Modern Traders
Opera Heights, J.B road, (Bandra West)
Mum bai-400052
Phone -9986574332, 022 -26654329
Fax-022-28765409
Email -moderntraders@gmail.com
Website -www.moder ntraders.com
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
22 November 2017
Mr. R S. Joshi
Joshi Furniture
L.T Road, Evershine Nagar
Malad (West)
Mumbai 400064
Dear Sir
We had heard favorable review about yo ur goods and services
from your customers, and hence are interested in knowing the
range of products you sell. We require cutting edge furniture for our
new branch at colaba, which is ready to open in a month.munotes.in

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67We would like to see your brochures, and price lists. We are
particularly interested in space saving furniture with maximum utility
and aesthetic appeal. We would like to know any schemes, offers
or discounts you have to offer on bulk purchase. We would also like
to know about the delivery period take n after placing the order, time
of delivery, and your preferred mode of payment, along with
warranty, and your damage policy. The detailed list of our
requirements is attached with this letter.
We hope to hear from you soon.
Yours Sincerely
D. P. Bhat
(Purchase Officer)
2)Reply to Enquiry Letter
Enquiry letters should be taken seriously by the receiver, as
the sender can send them to several firms at a time. One who
replies earliest has more chance of turning the enquiry into an
actual order. Hence reply letters to enquiry should be written as
early as possible. Also it is important to provide all round relevant
information, more than the one asked by the writer, as it will give
you an edge over others . A prompt reply, competitive advances,
lower rates and tempting incentives help to make the enquirer
interested in sealing the business deal. Reply to enquiry letter
should start with thanks to the sender, and have a polite ton e. It
should motivate the sender of enquiry letter to continue the
correspondence and to initiate the action.
3)Complaint and Claim Letters
A complaint letter is written to express buyer’s dissatisfaction
regarding some product or service delivered. The iss ue can be
about the price charged, the service quality, damage to the product
or any other matter. The words and tone used in a letter
complaining to a business may be the deciding factor on whether
the complaint gets attention and the claim gets adjusted
satisfactorily or not. It should be direct but tactful and always in
objective, logical and professional tone, appealing to the fair
mindedness of the reader. It should never be written in angry or
emotional tone. Required proof s should be provided to supp ort
sender’s argument.
An example of complaint and claim letter is given below in
semi block format.munotes.in

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68St. John High School and Junior college
Mahatma Phule road, Akurli (Kandivali West)
Mumbai -400067
Phone -022-28987657, 022 -28974432
Fax-022-27845656
Email -sjhsjc@gmail.com
Website -www.stjohn.com
--------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------
02 June 2017
Your Ref. No: 245/Sta/2017 -18
Our Ref No: 157/ Pur/2017 -18
Mr. M. C. Shah
Shah Stationeries
Station Road, Orchid Shopping Market
Andheri (West)
Mumbai 4000 58
Dear Sir
It h a n ky o uf o rp r o mptly delivering the consignment, as per above
sited reference numbers. However I regret to inform you that there
have been many problems with thedelivered goods.
I had ordered 3 boxes of our regular letterheads, hundred red ball
point pens, hundred and fifty blue ball point pens, twenty boxes of
chalks, of red, white and green colour each, hundred marker pens,
ten white board dusters, and ten regular dusters. However you
have delivered two boxes of regular and one box of special
letterheads. More than ha lf of pens are faulty, and white board
dusters are not delivered at all. The school and Junior college both
are staring from fifteen June which is less than fifteen days period.
Considering the fact we are your regular customers for more than
last ten year s, I hope that you will look into the matter personally,
anddeliver the correct goods within the week.
We hope to hear from you soon.
Yours Sincerely
Father Pereira
Principal
4)Job Application Letters
A letter for job application includes resume and covering
letter. It is a self -promotional document should be treated like a
sales letter. The resume includes candidate’s personal information
(name, birth date etc.), educational qualifications, performance and
relevant achievements. All the information given here should be
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69Photocopies of educational qualifications should be p rovided. Well
organized and neat resume enhances credibility of the candidate.
Covering letter like any other business letter, carries three
paragraphs in the body of the letter. The first paragraph gives the
brief introduction of the candidate, the post w hich you have applied
and the source of information regarding job vacancy. The second
paragraph focuses on educational qualificatio ns, job experience (if
any), co -curricular and extracurricular activities, and any other
especially mentionable areas. The th ird and concluding paragraph
motivates the reader for an interview, and ends on positive thank
you note.
A covering letter is given below.
Sameer S. Rao
A/10, Kailas Darshan,
Kandivali (w)
Mumbai -400067
10 August 2017
The Human Recourses Manager
Ambuja Steels
Navrang Industrial Estate,
Gore gaon (E)
Mumbai -400063
Dear Sir/ Madam
I Mr. Sameer S. Rao, came across the advertisement appeared in
Times of India (5 August 2017), regarding the requirement of a
hardworking and skilled sales executive. I am applying for the said
post of sales executi ve.
Apart from having the required educational qualifications, I possess
excellent communication and interpersonal skills. I have worked on
a few important marketing projects with my previous employers,
and am presently working as chief marking officer w ith ‘Esther
Cement’. I have completed my BCom from Sydenham College of
commerce and Economics, and have done my MBA from IGNOU. I
have flair in communication and have won state level intercollegiate
debate competition. My detailed bio -data is attached wit ht h i s
application, along with photocopies of my educational qualifications
and relevant testimonials. I hope to be shortlisted for written and
oral interviews, and look forward to meet you soon.
Yours Sincerely
Sameer s Rao
Encl: Bio data
Photocopies of S.S.C ,H.S.C. ,BCom, and M.B.A mark sheets
Photocopies of S.S.C ,H.S.C. ,BCom, and M.B.A Degree
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704.6 LETS SUM UP
Official correspondence is an integral part of any
organization. In modern day world of technology too, letter writing is
basic requirement of official communication. The skill of letter
writing is therefore must be learnt. There are basic principles of
effective letter writing, which are known as seven C’s of
communication. A business letter consists of a specific structure
calle d format. There are many globally accepted formats. Business
letters can be grouped into different categories based on their
purposes.
4.7 UNIT END EXERCISE S
1. Write short notes on
a. Significance of business letter
b. Body of the letter
c. Considera tion
d. Clarity
2. Draw the layouts of following formats
a. Full block
b. Modified block
c. Semi block
3. Write an explanatory note on basic principles of correspondence.
4. You are the store manager of Evershine Hotels. You want to
upgrade your stock, a nd want to purchase bed sheets, pillow
covers, Turkish towels, and curtains. Draft an enquiry letter
5. You had ordered five computers, five printers, and three
scanners for your new office. Two of the printers aren’t working,
and scanners sent are of diff erent make than you had ordered.
Write a complaint letter.
6. A plastic manufacturing unit requires marketing executive, with
minimum two years of experience. Fresher can also apply. Draft an
application letter with suitable resume.
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71Unit -5
INTERPRETING TECHNICAL DATA
UNIT STRUCTURE
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Types of Charts & Graphs
5.2.1 T able
5.2.2Line Graph
5.2.3Bar Chart
5.2.4Flow Chart, Map, Diagram
5.3 Presenting the Data in a single Paragraph
5.4 Some solved questions
5.5 Lets Sum Up
5.6 Glossary
5.7 Unit End Exercises
5.0OBJECTIVES
To acquaint the learner with different types charts, graphs etc.
used in visual representation of data .
To inculcate the ability & skills to read and interpret the maps,
charts, graphs and other variants of data representation .
To make the learner competent to write a paragraph describing
and analysing the map, chart, graph etc.
5.1INTRODUCTION
The word 'data' is derived from th eL a t i nl a n g u a g e .I tm e a n s
‘anything that is given’. According to Oxford Encyclopedic English
Dictionary data are "known facts or things used as a basis for
inference or reckoning." These dictionaries also state that even
though data is the plural form of datum, it is often treated as a
singular collective noun. Data can be presented by means of
tables, charts, and graphs. These supplement the information
presented through words. They are able to represent broad trends
in a clear and concise manner. Moreove r maps, charts, graphs and
tables have a great deal of visual appeal. Hence they allow a quick
understanding of the basic facts. Since they illustrate concurrent
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72multiple factors are repres ented together, they help in bringing
about a comparative analysis.
5.2TYPES OF CHARTS AND GRAPHS
Table
A table is a collection of figures, facts or other information
arranged in columns and rows. The readers locate the information
they need by reading across a row, and down a column. Because a
table displays its information in rows and columns, it can be useful
for juxtaposing data in two or more dimensions for easy comparison
and contrast.
Line Graph
A graph is usually straight or curved line/s drawn between a
vertical line and a horizontal line to connect a series of points
representing the varying values of two or more related things. It,
thus, primarily shows the relationship between two sets of figures or
two variables. The fixed lines —horizonta l and vertical are used as
reference points known as axis, each representing one set of
figures or one variable.
Bar Chart
Bar charts consist of a series of horizontal or vertical bars
drawn parallel to each other along a scale of measurement. Each
bar c an represent a different item or the same item at different
times, and the scale can be either a scale of percentage or one of
absolute quantities. Therefore, bar graphs are useful for showing
comparisons between the figures for the same item for different
periods of time or for different items for the same period of time.
F
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73Not all charts represent quantitative information. For
example, to illustrate the stages of a process, point out locations,
give directions, or show relations hips. This can be done this by
using flow charts, diagrams, and maps.
We have made you aware of the communication of
information by means of tables, charts and graphs, so that you can
interpret them in the exam and write a paragraph describing and
analysi ng them.
5.3PRESENTING DATA IN A SINGLE PARAGRAPH
Most pieces of writing require more than one paragraph.
Mastering the art of writing just a single paragraph r equires
planning and precision. T he eleme nts that make a good paragraph
are, the topic sentenc e, the function of different sentences in the
development of th e topic, thematic coherence, the use o f linking
and cohesive devices; and the use of all these factors in description
and analysis of the given data.
The topic sentence :
It describe sthe grap h/chart. It startswith, "The graph/chart
represents”
Inference :
The topic sentence should be followed by the inference
drawn by the learner. Since this is actually the last part of the
interpretation, it would be preferable for the learner to have used
rough work or rough draft. The rough draft should firstly list the
observations and then reach the inference. In the fair answer,
however, the inference follows the topic sentence. The inference
should clearly mention the trend or trends as shown by the d ata.
For e.g. "The consumption of packaged milk increased sharply over
an ‘X’ period." If there are two or more factor involved the inference
can compare their individual trends. For e.g., “The consumption of
packaged milk has shown a sharper rise than loo sely sold milk.”
Illustrations:
They are d etailed observations about the factors, in
quantifiable terms i.e. in numbers should follow the inference. This
should clearly mention, maximum, minimum, average, range etc. as
applicable.
Concluding remark:
This can be different from the inference. The learner may
write a general statement as per his or her understanding of the
topic, that extends the scope of the data given. Else, repeat the
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745.4SOLVED EXAMPLES
Write a paragraph on the information shown by the Line
graph. Include the main features and make comparisons where ver
relevant.
Model Answer
The graph gives information about Burnaby Public Library
between 2011 and 2014. It shows how many library books people
read over t his four -year period. As can be seen from the graph,
there were different trends for men and women. The number of
books read by men increased steadily between 2011 and 2012,
from about 3000 to 4000. After that, the number rose dramatically
to 14000 books i n 2014. This was the highest figure in the period.
Women started off reading more books than men, but their
numbers followed a different pattern. Between 2011 and 2012,
there was an increase of 3000 from 5000 books to 8000 books, and
then a gradual rise to 10000 books in 2013. However, in 2014, their
numbers fell back to 8000 again. Overall, there was a strong
upward trend in the number of books read by men. Although
women read more books than men in 2011, their reading fell to
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75Write a paragraph on the information shown by the Bar chart.
Include the main features and make comparisons where
relevant.
Model answer
This bar chart illustrates the performance of Someland's
primary exports in 2005 and 2015. It also indicates futu re
projections for 2025. According to the data, it seems likely that
international tourism will become the dominant industry, although
dairy exports will remain strong. In 2005, we can see that tourism
was the greatest exports earner of the three industrie s, with
revenue standing at just over $6 billion. This figure has increased
slightly, so that now, in 2015, it has reached almost $7 billion. It is
estimated that international tourism will continue to grow, so that by
2025, it will be earning around $8 bi llion for the country. In 2000,
dairy exports were worth around $5 billion, but since then there has
been a dramatic increase, and sales for this year are approximately
$8 billion. Experts are predicting that exports in this area may fall
slightly, so a fi gure of $7.5 billion is expected for 2025. Meat
products are the third key industry in Someland, but sales have
dropped since 2000 and now stand at $3.5 billion. It is expected
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76Write a paragraph on the in formation shown by the Pie charts.
Include the main features and make comparisons where relevant.
Model answer
The first chart shows the reasons why some people in the
UK prefer to cycle to work. Conversely, the second chart gives
reasons for those who choose to go to work by car. The highest
percentage of those who favour cycling say that this is because
riding a bicycle to work is healthier than driving. 30% of them gave
this as a reason. The same amount of people, 30% say that they
cycle to work becau se it causes less pollution. 13% of people cycle
to work because it is cheaper than driving. Surprisingly, a similar
amount of people said that they cycled to work because it is faster
than travelling by car.In contrast to this, the percentage who prefer
to travel by car because it is more comfortable is 40%. The two
least important reasons for going to work by car, with 14% and 11%
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77is safer than cycling to work. Finally, 16% say they pre fer driving
because it is faster than cycling. This contrasts with the cyclists
who ride to work because it is faster than driving.In general, it
seems that the majority of people who cycle to work do this for
health and environmental reasons. By contrast, those who travel by
car want to have a more comfortable journey over longer distances.
5.5 LETS SUM UP
Facts and figures in the form of a collection are known as data.
Data can be visually represented through tables, charts, maps,
diagram etc.
One such v isual representation of data shall be given in the
examination.
Learner shall be expected to write a paragraph describing and
analysing it.
The paragraph should begin with a topic sentence and end with
a conclusion.
Ideas should be arranged logically such that cohesion and
understanding is enabled.
Give adequate illustrations wherever required.
An inference specifying the trend/s as seen in the data should
be clearly mentioned in the paragraph.
5.6 GLOSSARY
Axis : A line on a graph to show the position of a point. (e.g.
vertical Y axis; horizontal X axis)
Bar Charts : A mathematical picture in which different
amounts are represented by thin vertical or horizontal
rectangles, which have the same width but vary in height or
length.
Charts : Information giv en in the form of graph, diagram or
pictures.
Columns and Rows : A column is a vertical block of words or
numbers while in a row the words or numbers are given
horizontally next to each other.
Graphs : A picture, which shows how one or more set/s of
inform ation or variable amounts are related usually by lines
or curves.
Flow Charts or Flow Diagrams: Show the stages of a
process.munotes.in

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78Symbols : A sign, which is used to represent something else.
Tables : An arrangement of fact and numbers in rows and
columns.
5.7 UNIT END EXERCISES
Q.1. Write a paragraph on the information shown by the Line
graph. Include the main features and make comparisons where
relevant.
Q.2.Write a paragraph on the information shown by the Bar
chart. Include the main features and mak e comparisons where
relevant.
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79Q.3. Write a paragraph on the information shown by the Pie
charts. Include the main features and make comparisons
where relevant.
Source: https://www.ielts -exam.net/IELTS -Writing -Samples/ielts -
writing.htm
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80Unit -6
ESSAY WRITING
UNIT STRUCTURE
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Warm up exercises
6.3 Types of essays
6.4 Steps in writing an essay
6.5 Letus sum up
6.6 Keywords
6.7 Exercises
6.0 OBJECTIVE
In this unit, we will learn ‘What is essay writing ?’ The warm
up exercises will start the process of learning about essay writing.
The paragraph writing exercises will help to develop proper
paragraphs. There are various types of essays. We will study
various steps in essay writing. After understanding th ese steps, we
study to how to develop major ideas in an essay and logically
connect paragraphs. We will also study how to conclude an essay.
After studying this unit, we will be able to write essays in the best
possible way.
6.1 INTRODUCTION ESSAY WRITING
An essay is a detailed analysis, description or presentation
of views on a topic. Itmay be written for various purposes.
Basically, it is a dialogue. Thus, essay writing is a very complex
academic activity. It is not only complex but a time consuming
process for the beginners. Practice and vision will help us to write a
most perfect essay. It is important to consider all important aspects
of topic before writing an essay. We have to be rational and
judicious while selecting our ideas to be included in ou r essay.
Complexity of selecting major ideas makes essay writing
assignment difficult for many learners. To present our ideas in style
in our essay, we have to use the most appropriate words and
phrases. We must include the core concepts and themes in our
essay composition that gives a concrete material on a topic which
discusses and expresses a point from different angles to give
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81An essay explains the matter in the best possible way. At
times through examples are also used in an es say to make the
idea(s) more clear. Considering the background and multi -
dimensionality of the topic, we have to develop a strategy to give
justice to the topic. In this strategic process, we need to explain the
meaning of key terms. We have to define key terms. An excellent
writer uses the questions to interpret the matter in a systematic
way. Citations, phrases and quotations are also useful resources to
be used in essay writing. We have to write an essay in one style.
We must strive to give answers to t he expected questions and
provide recommendations to broaden the views. In essay writing,
our style should be straightforward and direct. We should develop
arguments and logically connect all paragraphs. We must include a
brief summary of major ideas in co nclusion of our essay.
An essay communicates and gives relevant information on a
specific topic. To communicate and explain the facts and ideas of
the topic, we should be rational. We have to check for the
appropriateness of the points and language that w e are using to
write our essay. Since our essay reaches to the mass, it should be
legally and morally correct. We must respect all cultures and
maintain the etiquettes of writing culture. According to the reader’s
background and need of the subject we must understand and
focus on our purpose of essay writing. Thus, answer the question,
why am I writing this essay? Our writing means the content and
style should be proper. So answer the question how should I write
my essay? And accordingly design the structur e of your essay.
While designing the structure of your essay, try to find the answer
of ‘In which style, that is how, are you writing this essay? This
process will help us write our essay in the most appropriate tone
and write impersonally. As it is a diff icult task, one needs to
undergo a stringent training to excel the skills of essay writing.
6.2 WARM UP EXERCISES
As we have discussed, essay writing is a complex process.
We will begin with warm up exercises to go ahead.
Sentence Writing :
Let us start with the basics of writings. We already know
how to frame correct sentences. Frame one sentence for following
each word. Try to frame sentences by using different sentence
structure patterns such as simple, compound, complex, compound
and complex, sentence in active or passive voice, positive or
negative sentence, question, exclamatory, direct and indirect
sentence. Write good and clear sentences. Also try to frame
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82Words Class, fuel, feminism, education, practice, cor ruption,
devotion, music, dance, classical singing, scholar, politician, world,
environment, school, doctor, practice, product, god, literature,
Summer, winter, promise, friend, cheater, defense, offense
Paragraph Writing:
In essay writing, paragraph writ ing is important. Essay is
written in paragraphs in minimum three paragraphs. Thus, we must
do the practice of writing the paragraphs. A standard paragraph
has approximately minimum three sentences. Considering the
need of the topic this number varies. We should avoid writing
lengthy paragraphs.
We should develop one idea in one paragraph. It makes our
essay more impressive and concrete. To write perfect paragraph
practice is required. To hone our skills, you are requested to write
paragraphs on following topics in five to eleven sentences. This
practice will help you to present your ideas in a best possible way.
Take a specific or most important point of view and try to develop a
good paragraph. Make it clear, short and self -dependent and
complete.
Traini ngCulture Student Writing Career
Professional Life Cricket
Friend College Marriage Holidays
This practice of writing paragraphs brings to our notice that
there are many sides of a topic. We can classify these sides and
accordingly we can write the paragr aph. There is possibility of
giving different information in different paragraph. It proves that
there are many types of essay writing. We will study this below.
6.3 TYPES OF ESSAY
We have studied that an essay is written many ways
depending on the purpo se. In an essay writing we analyze, explain,
discuss, describe, contradict, cross question or narrate something
about the topic. Broadly speaking following are three major types
of essays.
1.Describing or descriptive essay
2.Narrative (creative) essay
3.Analyzin gessay
Describing or descriptive type of essay writing is elementary.
In this type of essay writer writes how (s)he did this or found these
elements or reading or explanation. Narrative essay writing is a
creative process to present the ideas. The analyz ing essay writing
is an academic writing. We will study this type of essay writing in
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836.4 STEPS IN ESSAY WRITING PROCESS
As we have studied earlier, essay writing is a process.
Following are general steps in writing an essay.
1.To select topic
Our essay depends on the topic under consideration. At
this, you are asked to write an essay on a topic with which you are
familiar. We need to be alert and read about all important events
and ideas. If we fail to understand the topic our essay will be
wrong . Thus, We must select the topic with which we are
comfortable and know certain judicious facts and data.
2.To formulate ideas
This step is important in essay writing. In this step we collect
major ideas related to the topic. A comprehensive thought proce ss
is needed in this step. We have to select the best and most apt
ideas. We should not focus redundant or irrelevant ideas. It will
help to formulate best ideas related to the topic.
3.To develop topic/thesis statement :
Based on the topic and formulated ideas, we should develop
a statement on the topic.
This statement presents the theme of the topic. It helps to
create a framework of our essay. It reflects our view on this topic.
Basically, it has the right observation that supports purpose. This
state ment is helps reader to understand the subject of essay, the
main idea to be developed in the essay and possible (re)sources or
evidences that are to be presented in the essay.
Assume that we are writing an essay on reading. We may
begin with a sentence like: Reading books is important for
students.
We might feel that it is a very good beginning of our essay.
But for experts it is an abstract i. e. vague statement as it sounds
as a common statement. Thus, it is not a professional and proper
statement.
Also note that thesis statement should not be a declaration,
a fact, a question and a quotation as these do not cover the points
that are required to write a proper thesis statement.
For example:
“I will discuss the need of reading for students.”(Decl aration)
“Reading improves standard of students.” (Fact)
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84Mr. ABC says, “Reading is important in student’s life.”
(Quotation) We should try to rewrite this statement by using
following claims:
Why is reading important for students? How will it help the
students?
Which books should be read by students?
With the help of these questions try to frame the statement
with the help of following points:
Reading books…important…students…because it h elps…to
improve…
4.To prepare thefirst draft
Thesis statement gives us the direction of writing the essay.
Based on this statement we must prepare our first draft of essay.
During this process we should try to include maximum appropriate
points related t o the subject. It is our first impression of the topic.
5.To check for appropriateness and be judicious
Our first draft is also known as rough draft. It includes
maximum points related to the topic. It might include maximum
points related to the topic. Bu t in this step, we should be judicious
and exclude those points, explanations, data, quotations and other
elements that are redundant. We must try to reframe the ideas that
are not clear in the first draft and use appropriate words,
statements, questions a nd citations if required. We must try for
logical and reasonable sequence of our essay.
6.To check for the introduction and conclusion:
It is observed that after updating first draft, essay writer feels
uncomfortable with introduction and conclusion. As d ata is
finalized, discussion is comprehensive, it direct writer to reconsider
introduction and conclusion of the topic. Based on internal
discussion of the text, we have to reframe, if needed, our
introduction and conclusion.
7.To give finishing touch
Essay writing is a systematic process. Above cited process
takes the essay writer through various updates. Accordingly, essay
writer changes the pattern of writing. It is at this stage, the essay
writer should think critically about his/her essay and give a f inishing
touch which will make essay complete, concrete and clear.
Technically, these steps are known as prewriting, writing
and rewriting . Now we will study these steps in detail.
Prewriting:
This step is very important in the process of essay writi ng. In
this process, we have read and understand various aspects of a
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85process helps us to refer the most perfect material on this topic.
While reading, we have to make notes, and design a plan of w riting
our essay. It gives us proper directions to analyze or explain the
material or discuss the topic in the best possible way. The
relevance that we get through this step focuses more on bringing
originality and presents our arguments rationally.
Writi ng:
We have to write our essay in minimum three paragraphs.
First paragraph introduces the topic. Second paragraph discusses
the topic in detail. Third and remaining paragraphs will discuss in
the detail remaining points and in last paragraph conclude th e
discussion in detail.
First paragraph develops or introduces the topic with thesis
statement. Itpresents background of the topic and direction in
which discussion will lead. It further discusses various points to be
covered in discussion. Italso ind icates the conclusion. We should
try to organize all the points logically. It prepares a space to
discuss in detail and support the main ideas.
In second paragraph and remaining paragraphs we should
adopt a policy. We may use examples to explain our ide as.Inthis
task, to go ahead, we may use the words for example, for instance,
to illustrate. If we have to present the issues in chronological order,
we can use, first, second, next, finally, furthermore, in addition,
also, moreover, furthermore, in addit ion, also, moreover and so on.
We might have to present the contradictory ideas. In this task, we
may use terms such as on the other hand, in contrast, although,
however. If we have to present similar ideas, we may use words
such as likewise, similarly. Wh ile discussing or analyzing, we might
have to present the exceptions. Inthis task, we may use the words
however, nevertheless, but, yet, still.
As discussed in d etail, we might have to emphasize on
certain points. We can use words like, above all, fina lly. To focus
more on specific points, we may use words such as inother words,
in essence, briefly and so on. Inthe process of essay writing, we
might have to (re)examine. In this task we can use words such as
to test, it is important. When we come to t he section of conclusion,
we can use words such as to sum up, to conclude, in conclusion, in
for these reasons, etc.
Body of essay (Second paragraph) second sentence of
second paragraph may be topic sentence which should be a major
point of the topic. I t might contain quotation or statistics. Further, it
should link to the following paragraph.
Conclusion:
Concluding paragraph of an essay is a shorter paragraph of
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86on reader so that (t)he (y) can take action henceforth. We should
not use any new point in this section. Summary writing skills will
help to write this paragraph in a better way. It is a logical extension
of the body. We need to restate our thesis statement skillfully in
this sec tion. This paragraph is sum total of our view on the topic of
the essay.
6.5 LET US SUM UP
In this unit, we have studied about essay writing. Essay
writing is an academic activity. It is a complex and time consuming
process. An essay explains the matt er in the best possible way. It
gives answers to the expected questions and provides
recommendations to broaden the views on topic. An essay should
be written straightforward and direct style where arguments are
logically connected in different paragraphs.
6.6 KEYWORDS
Essay : A short piece of writing
Paragraph: A distinct section of a piece of writing, usually dealing
with a single theme and indicated by a new line, indentation, or
numbering.
Sentence: Aset of words that is complete in itself, typical ly
containing a subject and predicate, conveying a statement,
question, exclamation, or command, and consisting of a main
clause and sometimes
Describe: give a detailed account in words of.
Analyze: Examine (something) methodically and in detail, typical ly
in order to explain and interpret it
Explain :what is meant by a word, text, concept, or action
6.7 EXERCISES
1.Write an essay on following topics: Education in India
2.Importance of Higher education Corruption
3.Marriage Institution Status of women in In dia Distance
Education Uniform
4.Coaching Classes: Need or Fashion Friendship Press
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